On the counterfactual nature of envy: “It could have been me”

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( 4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Aristotle. (350BC/1954). The rhetoric and the poetics of Aristotle (W. R. Roberts, Trans.). New York, NY: Modern Library.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Ze'ev, A. (1992). Envy and inequality. The Journal of Philosophy, 89, 551–581. doi:10.2307/2941056
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coricelli, G., & Rustichini, A. (2010). Counterfactual thinking and emotions: Regret and envy learning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365, 241–247. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elster, J. (1991). Envy in social life. In R. J. Zeckhauser (Ed.), Strategy and choice (pp. 49–82). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2008). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12, 168–192. doi:10.1177/1088868308316091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frijda, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43, 349–358. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.43.5.349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999). Individual differences in social comparison: The development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129–142. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93, 136–153. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.136
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1982). The simulation heuristic. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky(Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 201–208). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Varey, C. A. (1990). Propensities and counterfactuals: The loser that almost won. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1101–1110. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2012). Envy divides the two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality, 80, 1415–1451. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00767.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146–159. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 83–104. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandel, D. (2003). Counterfactuals, emotions, and context. Cognition & Emotion, 17(1), 139–159. doi:10.1080/02699930302275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandel, D. R., & Dhami, M. K. (2005). “What I did” versus “What I might have done”: Effect of factual and counterfactual thinking on blame, guilt, and shame in prisoners. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 637–645. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.08.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markman, K. D., Gavanski, I., Sherman, S. J., & McMullen, M. N. (1993). The mental simulation of better and worse possible worlds. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(1), 87–109. doi:10.1006/jesp.1993.1005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markman, K. D., Gavanski, I., Sherman, S. J., & McMullen, M. N. (1995). The impact of perceived control on the imagination of better and worse possible worlds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 588–595. doi:10.1177/0146167295216005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more. Counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 603–610. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedenthal, P. M., Tangney, J. P., & Gavanski, I. (1994). “If only I weren't” versus “if only I hadn't”: Distinguishing shame and guilt in counterfactual thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 585–595. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrott, W. G., & Smith, R. H. (1993). Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 906–920. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.6.906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roese, N. J. (1994). The functional basis of counterfactual thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 805–818. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roese, N. J. (1997). Counterfactual thinking. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 133–148. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1993). Self-esteem and counterfactual thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 199–206. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseman, I. J. (1996). Appraisal determinants of emotions: Constructing a more accurate and comprehensive theory. Cognition and Emotion, 10, 241–278. doi:10.1080/026999396380240
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseman, I. J., Wiest, C., & Swartz, T. S. (1994). Phenomenology, behaviors, and goals differentiate discrete emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 206–221. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rye, M. S., Cahoon, M. B., Ali, R. S., & Daftary, T. (2008). Development and validation of the counterfactual thinking for negative events scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90, 261–269. doi:10.1080/00223890701884996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1991). Provoking jealousy and envy: Domain relevance and self-esteem threat. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10, 395–413. doi:10.1521/jscp.1991.10.4.395
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaubroeck, J., & Lam, S. S. K. (2004). Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees' invidious reactions to promotees. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94(1), 33–47. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 46–64. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. H., Kim, S. H., & Parrott, W. G. (1988). Envy and jealousy: Semantic problems and experiential distinctions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 401–409. doi:10.1177/0146167288142017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, R. H., Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (1999). Dispositional envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1007–1020. doi:10.1177/01461672992511008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoessel, B. J. (2007). Facets of the self in grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem, and shame (Electronic Doctoral Dissertations for UMass Amherst. Paper AAI3275751). http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI3275751
   Google Scholar
• Teigen, K. H. (1995). How good is good luck? The role of counterfactual thinking in the perception of lucky and unlucky events. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 281–302. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420250304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teigen, K. H. (1997). Luck, envy, and gratitude: It could have been different. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 38, 313–323. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2009). Leveling up and down: The experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion, 9, 419–429. doi:10.1037/a0015669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2011). Why envy outperforms admiration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 784–795. doi:10.1177/0146167211400421
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2005). On the psychology of ‘if only’: Regret and the comparison between factual and counterfactual outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97, 152–160. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeelenberg, M. (1999). The use of crying over spilled milk: A note on the rationality and functionality of regret. Philosophical Psychology, 13, 326–340.
   Google Scholar
• Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2007). A theory of regret regulation 1.0. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(1), 3–18. doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1701_3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeelenberg, M., Van Dijk, W. W., Van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. R., Van Empelen, P., & Reinderman, D. (1998). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decision: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75(2), 117–141. doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2784
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar