The effects of cognitive load on attention control in subclinical anxiety and generalised anxiety disorder

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (4th ed., Text Rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Berggren, N., Richards, A., Taylor, J., & Derakshan, N. (2013). Affective attention under cognitive load: Reduced emotional biases but emergent anxiety-related costs to inhibitory control. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 1–7. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, S. J. (2008). Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention. Nature Neuroscience, 12(1), 92–98. doi:10.1038/nn.2242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derakshan, N., & Eysenck, M. W. (2009). Anxiety, processing efficiency, and cognitive performance. European Psychologist, 14, 168–176. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.14.2.168
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1988). Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 958–966. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.6.958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633–652. doi:10.1017/S0954579497001375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992). Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 409–434. doi:10.1080/02699939208409696
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7, 336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347. doi:10.1073/pnas.080070897
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finucane, A. M., & Power, M. J. (2010). The effect of fear on attentional processing in a sample of healthy females. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(1), 42–48. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & William, J. B. W. (1996). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders, clinician version (SCID-CV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
   Google Scholar
• Forster, S., & Lavie, N. (2009). Harnessing the wandering mind: The role of perceptual load. Cognition, 111, 345–355. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & Barrett, L. F. (2011). Emotion generation and emotion regulation: One or two depends on your point of view. Emotion Review, 3(1), 8–16. doi:10.1177/1754073910380974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judah, M. R., DeMond, M. G., Lechner, W. V., & Mills, A. C. (2013). Working memory load moderates late attentional bias in social anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 502–511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, R., & Schaefer, A. (2010). The emotional startle effect is disrupted by a concurrent working memory task. Psychophysiology, 48, 269–272. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01062.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavie, N. (2000). Selective attention and cognitive control: Dissociating attentional functions through different types of load. In S. Monsell & J. Driver (Eds.), Attention and performance XVIII (pp. 175–194). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lavie., N. (2005). Distracted and confused?: Selective attention under load. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 75–82. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavie, N. (2010). Attention, distraction, and cognitive control under load. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(3), 143–148. doi:10.1177/0963721410370295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacNamara, A., Ferri, J., & Hajcak, G. (2011). Working memory reduces the LPP and this effect is attenuated with increasing anxiety. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 321–331. doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0036-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacNamara, A., & Proudfit, G. H. (2014). Cognitive load and emotional processing in generalized anxiety disorder: Electrocortical evidence for increased distractibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 123, 557–565. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/a0036997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacheco-Unguetti, A. P., Acosta, A., Callejas, A., & Lupianez, J. (2010). Attention and anxiety: Different attentional functioning under state and trait anxiety. Psychological Science, 21, 298–304. doi:10.1177/0956797609359624
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacheco-Unguetti, A. P., Acosta, A., Lupianez, J., Roman, N., & Derakshan, N. (2012). Response inhibition and attentional control in anxiety. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 646–660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32(1), 3–25. doi:10.1080/00335558008248231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 1–23. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Vizueta, N., Levy, K. N., Evans, D. E., Thomas, K. M., & Clarkin, J. F. (2002). Attentional mechanisms of borderline personality disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 99, 16366–16370. doi:10.1073/pnas.252644699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratcliff, R. (1993). Methods for dealing with reaction time outliers. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 510–532. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2012). Effects of anxiety and attention control on processing pictorial and linguistic emotional information. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 410–417. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2012). Attention control: Relationships between self-report and behavioural measures, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Temperament and self-regulation. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 357–370). New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• van den Hout, M. A., Engelhard, I. M., Smeets, M. A. M., Hornsveld, H., Hoogeveen, E., de Heer, E., … Rijkeboer, M. (2010). Counting during recall: Taxing working memory and reduced vividness and emotionality of negative memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 303–311. doi:10.1002/acp.1677
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vytal, K., Cornwell, B., Arkin, N., & Grillon, C. (2012). Describing the interplay between anxiety and cognition: From impaired performance under low cognitive load to reduced anxiety under high load. Psychophysiology, 49, 842–852. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01358.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar