Emotions as guardians of group norms: expressions of anger and disgust drive inferences about autonomy and purity violations

References

• Adam, H., & Brett, J. M. (2015). Context matters: The social effects of anger in cooperative, balanced, and competitive negotiation situations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 61, 44–58. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2015.07.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calanchini, J., Moons, W. G., & Mackie, D. M. (2016). Angry expressions induce extensive processing of persuasive appeals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 88–98. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2016.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, C. D., Lindquist, K. A., & Gray, K. (2015). A constructionist review of morality and emotions: No evidence for specific links between moral content and discrete emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 371–394. doi: 10.1177/1088868314566683
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2013). Things rank and gross in nature: A review and synthesis of moral disgust. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 300–327. doi: 10.1037/a0030964
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifford, S., Iyengar, V., Cabeza, R., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2015). Moral foundations vignettes: A standardized stimulus database of scenarios based on moral foundations theory. Behavior Research Methods, 47, 1178–1198. doi: 10.3758/s13428-014-0551-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawley, M. J. (2007). The R book (1st ed.). Chichester, England, United Kingdom: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• De Melo, C. M., Carnevale, P. J., Read, S. J., & Gratch, J. (2014). Reading people’s minds from emotion expressions in interdependent decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 73–88. doi: 10.1037/a0034251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2008). Social functions of emotion. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 456–468). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Giner-Sorolla, R., & Espinosa, P. (2011). Social cuing of guilt by anger and of shame by disgust. Psychological Science, 22, 49–53. doi: 10.1177/0956797610392925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1029–1046. doi: 10.1037/a0015141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 366–385. doi: 10.1037/a0021847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hareli, S., & Hess, U. (2010). What emotional reactions can tell us about the nature of others: An appraisal perspective on person perception. Cognition & Emotion, 24, 128–140. doi: 10.1080/02699930802613828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hareli, S., Moran-Amir, O., David, S., & Hess, U. (2013). Emotions as signals of normative conduct. Cognition & Emotion, 27, 1395–1404. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2013.791615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Heerdink, M. W., Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., & Fischer, A. H. (2013). On the social influence of emotions in groups: Interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on conformity versus deviance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 262–284. doi: 10.1037/a0033362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heerdink, M. W., Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., & Fischer, A. H. (2015). Emotional expressions as social signals of rejection and acceptance: Evidence from the affect misattribution paradigm. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 60–68. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horberg, E. J., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2011). Emotions as moral amplifiers: An appraisal tendency approach to the influences of distinct emotions upon moral judgment. Emotion Review, 3, 237–244. doi: 10.1177/1754073911402384
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, J. L., Liu, M., & Bowling, N. A. (2015). Insufficient effort responding: Examining an insidious confound in survey data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 828–845. doi: 10.1037/a0038510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutcherson, C. A., & Gross, J. J. (2011). The moral emotions: A social–functionalist account of anger, disgust, and contempt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 719–737. doi: 10.1037/a0022408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izard, C. E. (1977). Human emotions. Boston, MA: Springer US. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-2209-0
   Google Scholar
• Jaeger, B. C., Edwards, L. J., Das, K., & Sen, P. K. (2017). An R2 statistic for fixed effects in the generalized linear mixed model. Journal of Applied Statistics, 44, 1086–1105. doi: 10.1080/02664763.2016.1193725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110, 265–284. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (1999). Social functions of emotions at four levels of analysis. Cognition & Emotion, 13, 505–521. doi: 10.1080/026999399379168
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupfer, T. R., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2017). Communicating moral motives: The social signaling function of disgust. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, 632–640. doi: 10.1177/1948550616679236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landmann, H., & Hess, U. (2018). Testing moral foundation theory: Are specific moral emotions elicited by specific moral transgressions? Journal of Moral Education, 47, 34–47. doi: 10.1080/03057240.2017.1350569
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. (1994). Group socialization: Theory and research. European Review of Social Psychology, 5, 305–336. doi: 10.1080/14792779543000093
   Google Scholar
• Manstead, A. S. R., & Fischer, A. H. (2001). Social appraisal. In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 221–232). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Molho, C., Tybur, J. M., Güler, E., Balliet, D., & Hofmann, W. (2017). Disgust and anger relate to different aggressive responses to moral violations. Psychological Science, 28, 609–619. doi: 10.1177/0956797617692000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paluck, E. L. (2009). Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 574–587. doi: 10.1037/a0011989
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paluck, E. L., & Shepherd, H. (2012). The salience of social referents: A field experiment on collective norms and harassment behavior in a school social network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 899–915. doi: 10.1037/a0030015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prinz, J. J. (2007). The emotional construction of morals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Royzman, E., Atanasov, P., Landy, J. F., Parks, A., & Gepty, A. (2014). CAD or MAD? Anger (not disgust) as the predominant response to pathogen-free violations of the divinity code. Emotion, 14, 892–907. doi: 10.1037/a0036829
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozin, P., Lowery, L., Imada, S., & Haidt, J. (1999). The CAD triad hypothesis: A mapping between three moral emotions (contempt, anger, disgust) and three moral codes (community, autonomy, divinity). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 574–586. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.574
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, J. A. (1994). Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expressions? A review of the cross-cultural studies. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 102–141. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2011). Moral anger is more flexible than moral disgust. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 360–364. doi: 10.1177/1948550610391678
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 328–351. doi: 10.1037/a0029319
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinaceur, M., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2006). Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 314–322. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sy, T., Côté, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: Impact of the leader’s mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 295–305. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taggar, S., & Ellis, R. (2007). The role of leaders in shaping formal team norms. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 105–120. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: The effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 86–94. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120, 65–84. doi: 10.1037/a0030778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A. (2009). How emotions regulate social life: The emotions As social information (EASI) model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 184–188. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01633.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A. (2016). The interpersonal dynamics of emotion: Toward an integrative theory of emotions as social information. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A. (2017). The social effects of emotions are functionally equivalent across expressive modalities. Psychological Inquiry, 28, 211–216. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2017.1338102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). The interpersonal effects of emotions in negotiations: A motivated information processing approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 510–528. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2010). An interpersonal approach to emotion in social decision making: The emotions as social information model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 45–96. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(10)42002-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., Beersma, B., van Knippenberg, D., van Knippenberg, B., & Damen, F. (2009). Searing sentiment or cold calculation? The effects of leader emotional displays on team performance depend on follower epistemic motivation. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 562–580. doi: 10.5465/amj.2009.41331253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., Van den Berg, H., & Heerdink, M. W. (2015). The persuasive power of emotions: Effects of emotional expressions on attitude formation and change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 1124–1142. doi: 10.1037/apl0000003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., Van Doorn, E. A., Heerdink, M. W., & Koning, L. F. (2011). Emotion is for influence. European Review of Social Psychology, 22, 114–163. doi: 10.1080/10463283.2011.627192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kleef, G. A., Wanders, F., Stamkou, E., & Homan, A. C. (2015). The social dynamics of breaking the rules: Antecedents and consequences of norm-violating behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 25–31. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.03.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, H. L. (2000). The accessibility of the term “contempt” and the meaning of the unilateral lip curl. Cognition & Emotion, 14, 689–710. doi: 10.1080/02699930050117675
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkamp, B., Dotsch, R., Van Halen, C., Tong, E., & Wigboldus, D. H. J. (2013). A cross-cultural study on how immigrants’ understanding of approval and disapproval relates to successful adaptation (Unpublished Master’s thesis).
   Google Scholar
• Young, L., & Tsoi, L. (2013). When mental states matter, when they don’t, and what that means for morality: When mental states matter for morality. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 585–604. doi: 10.1111/spc3.12044
   Google Scholar