1,452
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Attention to faces and gaze-following in social anxiety: preliminary evidence from a naturalistic eye-tracking investigation

, &
Pages 931-942 | Received 12 Jun 2017, Accepted 30 Aug 2018, Published online: 06 Sep 2018

References

  • Acarturk, C., Cuijpers, P., van Straten, A., & de Graaf, R. (2009). Psychological treatment of social anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 39(2), 241–254. doi: 10.1017/S0033291708003590
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(11), 1325–1335.
  • Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(8), 704–723. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004
  • Armstrong, T., Olatunji, B. O., Sarawgi, S., & Simmons, C. (2010). Orienting and maintenance of gaze in contamination fear: Biases for disgust and fear cues. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(5), 402–408. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2010.01.002
  • Auyeung, B., Lombardo, M. V., Heinrichs, M., Chakrabarti, B., Sule, A., Deakin, J. B., … Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). Oxytocin increases eye contact during a real-time, naturalistic social interaction in males with and without autism. Translational Psychiatry, 5, e507. doi:10.1038/tp.2014.146.
  • Baker, S. L., Heinrichs, N., Kim, H.-J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2002). The Liebowitz social anxiety scale as a self-report instrument: A preliminary psychometric analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(6), 701–715. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00060-2
  • Bantin, T., Stevens, S., Gerlach, A. L., & Hermann, C. (2016). What does the facial dot-probe task tell us about attentional processes in social anxiety? A systematic review. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 50, 40–51. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.04.009
  • Birmingham, E., Bischof, W. F., & Kingstone, A. (2008). Social attention and real-world scenes: The roles of action, competition and social content. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(7), 986–998. doi: 10.1080/17470210701410375
  • Bögels, S. M., Alden, L., Beidel, D. C., Clark, L. A., Pine, D. S., Stein, M. B., & Voncken, M. (2010). Social anxiety disorder: Questions and answers for the DSM-V. Depression and Anxiety, 27(2), 168–189. doi: 10.1002/da.20670
  • Bögels, S. M., & Mansell, W. (2004). Attention processes in the maintenance and treatment of social phobia: Hypervigilance, avoidance and self-focused attention. Clinical Psychology Review, 24(7), 827–856. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2004.06.005
  • Buckner, J. D., Maner, J. K., & Schmidt, N. B. (2010). Difficulty disengaging attention from social threat in social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 34(1), 99–105. doi: 10.1007/s10608-008-9205-y
  • Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Social cognition, joint attention, and communicative competence from 9 to 15 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63(4), V–143. doi: 10.2307/1166214
  • Chen, Y. P., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Mansell, W. (2002). Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(6), 677–687. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00086-9
  • Chen, N. T. M., Thomas, L. M., Clarke, P. J. F., Hickie, I. B., & Guastella, A. J. (2015). Hyperscanning and avoidance in social anxiety disorder: The visual scanpath during public speaking. Psychiatry Research, 225(3), 667–672. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.025
  • Chita-Tegmark, M. (2016). Social attention in ASD: A review and meta-analysis of eye-tracking studies. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 48, 79–93. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2015.10.011
  • Christley, R. M. (2010). Power and error: Increased risk of false positive results in underpowered studies. The Open Epidemiology Journal, 3(1), 16–19.
  • Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. G. Heimberg (Ed.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.
  • Cole, G. G., Smith, D. T., & Atkinson, M. A. (2015). Mental state attribution and the gaze cueing effect. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77(4), 1105–1115. doi: 10.3758/s13414-014-0780-6
  • Davidson, J. R. T., Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Keefe, F. J., Franklin, M. E., Compton, J. S., … Gadde, K. M. (2004). Fluoxetine, comprehensive cognitive behavioral therapy, and placebo in generalized social phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(10), 1005–1013. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.61.10.1005
  • de Gelder, B. (2009). Why bodies? Twelve reasons for including bodily expressions in affective neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3475–3484. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0190
  • Driver, J., Davis, G., Ricciardelli, P., Kidd, P., Maxwell, E., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). Gaze perception triggers reflexive visuospatial orienting. Visual Cognition, 6(5), 509–540. doi:101080 /13506289934920
  • Fistikci, N., Saatcioğlu, Ö, Keyvan, A., Kalkan, M., & Topçuoğlu, V. (2015). Attentional bias and training in social anxiety disorder. Noro Psikiyatri Arsivi, 52(1), 4–7. doi: 10.5152/npa.2015.8777
  • Fox, E., Mathews, A., Calder, A. J., & Yiend, J. (2007). Anxiety and sensitivity to gaze direction in emotionally expressive faces. Emotion, 7(3), 478–486. doi:101037 /1528-3542.7.3.478
  • Freeth, M., Chapman, P., Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (2010). Do gaze cues in complex scenes capture and direct the attention of high functioning adolescents with ASD? Evidence from Eye-tracking. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(5), 534–547. doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0893-2
  • Freeth, M., Foulsham, T., & Kingstone, A. (2013). What affects social attention? Social presence, Eye contact and autistic traits. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e53286. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053286
  • Fresco, D. M., Coles, M. E., Heimberg, R. G., Liebowitz, M. R., Hami, S., Stein, M. B., & Goetz, D. (2001). The liebowitz social anxiety scale: A comparison of the psychometric properties of self-report and clinician-administered formats. Psychological Medicine, 31(06), 1025–1035. doi: 10.1017/S0033291701004056
  • Friesen, C. K., & Kingstone, A. (1998). The eyes have it! reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(3), 490–495. doi: 10.3758/BF03208827
  • Frischen, A., Bayliss, S. P., & Tipper, S. P. (2007). Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 694–724.
  • Gallup, A. C., Chong, A., & Couzin, I. D. (2012). The directional flow of visual information transfer between pedestrians. Biology Letters, 8(4), 520–522. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2012.0160
  • Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(4), 760–770. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.760
  • Gelman, A., & Weakliem, D. (2009). Of beauty, sex and power: Too little attention has been paid to the statistical challenges in estimating small effects. American Scientist, 97(4), 310–316.
  • Gobel, M. S., Kim, H. S., & Richardson, D. C. (2015). The dual function of social gaze. Cognition, 136, 359–364. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.040
  • Gregory, N., & Antolin, J. V. (2018). Does social presence or the potential for interaction reduce social gaze in online social scenarios? Introducing the “live Lab” paradigm. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, doi: 10.1177/1747021818772812
  • Gregory, N. J., Hermens, F., Facey, R., & Hodgson, T. L. (2016). The developmental trajectory of attentional orienting to socio-biological cues. Experimental Brain Research, 234(6), 1351–1362. doi: 10.1007/s00221-016-4627-3
  • Gregory, N. J., & Hodgson, T. L. (2012). Giving subjects the eye and showing them the finger: Socio-biological cues and saccade generation in the anti-saccade task. Perception, 41(2), 131–147. doi: 10.1068/p7085
  • Gregory, N. J., Lόpez, B., Graham, G., Marshman, P., Bate, S., & Kargas, N. (2015). Reduced gaze following and attention to heads when viewing a ‘live’ social scene. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0121792. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121792
  • Heinrichs, N., & Hofmann, S. G. (2001). Information processing in social phobia: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 21(5), 751–770.
  • Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., & van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures. Oxford: OUP Oxford.
  • Horley, K., Williams, L. M., Gonsalvez, C., & Gordon, E. (2003). Social phobics do not see eye to eye: A visual scanpath study of emotional expression processing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(1), 33–44. doi: 10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00180-9
  • Horley, K., Williams, L. M., Gonsalvez, C., & Gordon, E. (2004). Face to face: Visual scanpath evidence for abnormal processing of facial expressions in social phobia. Psychiatry Research, 127(1), 43–53. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2004.02.016
  • Klumpp, H., & Amir, N. (2009). Examination of vigilance and disengagement of threat in social anxiety with a probe detection task. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 22(3), 283–296. doi: 10.1080/10615800802449602
  • Kuhn, G., & Benson, V. (2007). The influence of eye-gaze and arrow pointing distractor cues on voluntary eye movements. Perception & Psychophysics, 69(6), 966–971.
  • Kuhn, G., Benson, V., Fletcher-Watson, S., Kovshoff, H., McCormick, C., Kirkby, J., & Leekam, S. (2010). Eye movements affirm: Automatic overt gaze and arrow cueing for typical adults and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Experimental Brain Research, 201(2), 155–165. doi: 10.1007/s00221-009-2019-7
  • Kuhn, G., & Kingstone, A. (2009). Look away! eyes and arrows engage oculomotor responses automatically. Attention Perception & Psychophysics, 71(2), 314–327. doi: 10.3758/APP.71.2.314
  • Kylliainen, A., & Hietanen, J. K. (2004). Attention orienting by another’s gaze direction in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(3), 435–444.
  • Laidlaw, K. E. W., Foulsham, T., Kuhn, G., & Kingstone, A. (2011). Potential social interactions are important to social attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 5548–5553. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1017022108
  • Leekam, S., Hunnisett, E., & Moore, C. (1998). Targets and cues: Gaze-following in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39(7), 951–962.
  • Liebowitz, M. R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems in Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141–173.
  • Lindsay, D. S. (2015). Replication in psychological science. Psychological Science, 26(12), 1827–1832. doi: 10.1177/0956797615616374
  • Mansell, W., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., & Chen, Y.-P. (1999). Social anxiety and attention away from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 13(6), 673–690. doi: 10.1080/026999399379032
  • Mennin, D. S., Fresco, D. M., Heimberg, R. G., Schneier, F. R., Davies, S. O., & Liebowitz, M. R. (2002). Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: Using the liebowitz social anxiety scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16(6), 661–673. doi: 10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00134-2
  • Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(12), 1403–1414.
  • Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., de Bono, J., & Painter, M. (1997). Time course of attentional bias for threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(4), 297–303.
  • Mogg, K., Bradley, B., Miles, F., & Dixon, R. (2004). Brief report time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the VigilanceAvoidance hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion, 18(5), 689–700.
  • Mogg, K., Philippot, P., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 160–165. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.160
  • Morissette, P., Ricard, M., & Décarie, T. G. (1995). Joint visual attention and pointing in infancy: A longitudinal study of comprehension. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, doi: 10.1111/j.2044-835X.1995.tb00671.x
  • Munafò, M. R., Nosek, B. A., Bishop, D. V. M., Button, K. S., Chambers, C. D., Percie du Sert, N., … Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2017). A manifesto for reproducible science. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(1), doi:10.1038/s41562-016-0021. Retrieved from http://orca.cf.ac.uk/97336/1/s41562-016-0021.pdf
  • Nasiopolous, E., Risko, E. F., & Kingstone, A. (2015). Social attention, social presence, and the dual function of gaze. In A. Puce, & B. I. Bertenthal (Eds.), The many faces of social attention. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-21368-2
  • Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. doi: 10.1126/science.aac4716
  • Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 32(FEB), 3–25. doi: 10.1080/00335558008248231
  • Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(8), 741–756.
  • Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2006). Spider fearful individuals attend to threat, then quickly avoid it: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(2), 231–238. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.115.2.231
  • Roelofs, K., Putman, P., Schouten, S., Lange, W.-G., Volman, I., & Rinck, M. (2010). Gaze direction differentially affects avoidance tendencies to happy and angry faces in socially anxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(4), 290–294. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2009.11.008
  • Ruscio, A. M. (2010). The latent structure of social anxiety disorder: Consequences of shifting to a dimensional diagnosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(4), 662–671. doi: 10.1037/a0019341
  • Schmitz, J., Scheel, C. N., Rigon, A., Gross, J. J., & Blechert, J. (2012). You don’t like me, do you? Enhanced ERP responses to averted eye gaze in social anxiety. Biological Psychology, 91(2), 263–269. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.07.004
  • Smilek, D., Birmingham, E., Cameron, D., Bischof, W., & Kingstone, A. (2006). Cognitive ethology and exploring attention in real-world scenes. Brain Research, 1080(1), 101–119. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.12.090
  • Stevens, S., Rist, F., & Gerlach, A. L. (2009). Influence of alcohol on the processing of emotional facial expressions in individuals with social phobia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 125–140. doi: 10.1348/014466508X368856
  • Swettenham, J., Condie, S., Campbell, R., Milne, E., & Coleman, M. (2003). Does the perception of moving eyes trigger reflexive visual orienting in autism? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 358(1430), 325–334. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1203
  • Tipples, J. (2002). Eye gaze is not unique: Automatic orienting in response to uninformative arrows. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(2), 314–318.
  • Tukey, J. W. (1962). The future of data analysis. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 33(1), 1–67. doi: 10.1214/aoms/1177704711
  • Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014). Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(3), 313–333. doi: 10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2
  • Weiller, E., Bisserbe, J. C., Boyer, P., Lepine, J. P., & Lecrubier, Y. (1996). Social phobia in general health care: An unrecognised undertreated disabling disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 168(2), 169–174.
  • Wong, Q. J. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2016). The aetiology and maintenance of social anxiety disorder: A synthesis of complimentary theoretical models and formulation of a new integrated model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 203, 84–100. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.069

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.