The impact of minimal exposure to affective information on mood and its moderation by prime visibility: a meta-analysis

References

• References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.
   Google Scholar
• Balduzzi, S., Rücker, G., & Schwarzer, G. (2019). How to perform a meta-analysis with R: A practical tutorial. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 22(4), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2019-300117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banse, R. (2001). Affective priming with liked and disliked persons: Prime visibility determines congruency and incongruency effects. Cognition and Emotion, 15(4), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930126251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer Jr, & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition: Basic processes; applications (Vols. 1–2, 2nd ed., pp. 1–40). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• *Baumgartner, S. E., & Wirth, W. (2012). Affective priming during the processing of news articles. Media Psychology, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2011.648535
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaison, C., Imhoff, R., Hühnel, I., Hess, U., & Banse, R. (2012). The affect misattribution procedure: Hot or not? Emotion, 12(2), 403–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bless, H., & *Burger, A. M. (2016). Assimilation and contrast in social priming. Current Opinion in Psychology, 12, 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle, G. J., Helmes, E., Matthews, G., & Izard, C. E. (2015). Measures of affect dimensions. In G. J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 190–224). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386915-9.00008-5
   Google Scholar
• Burger, A. M., & Bless, H. (2016). Affect and the weight of idealistic versus pragmatic concerns in decision situations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46(3), 323–340. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2164
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Chartrand, T. L., van Baaren, R. B., & Bargh, J. A. (2006). Linking automatic evaluation to mood and information processing style: Consequences for experienced affect, impression formation, and stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(1), 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.1.70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Chatelain, M., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2015). Implicit fear and effort-related cardiac response. Biological Psychology, 111, 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.08.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, M. W. L. (2019). A guide to conducting a meta-analysis with non-independent effect sizes. Neuropsychology Review, 29(4), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-019-09415-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clore, G. L. (1994). Why emotions are never unconscious. In P. Ekman, & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 285–290). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clore, G. L., & Huntsinger, J. R. (2009). How the object of affect guides its impact. Emotion Review, 1(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073908097185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damasio, A. R. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain. Harcourt.
   Google Scholar
• Doyen, S., Klein, O., Simons, D. J., & Cleeremans, A. (2014). On the other side of the mirror: Priming in cognitive and social psychology. In D. C. Molden (Ed.), Understanding priming effects in social psychology (pp. 14–34). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Efendic, E., Drace, S., & Ric, F. (2019). The combination of multiple affective experiences and their impact on valuation judgments. Cognition and Emotion, 34(4), 684–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1675597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Era, V., Candidi, M., & Aglioti, S. M. (2015). Subliminal presentation of emotionally negative vs positive primes increases the perceived beauty of target stimuli. Experimental Brain Research, 233(11), 3271–3281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-015-4395-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Framorando, D., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2019a). It’s about effort: Impact of implicit affect on cardiovascular response is context dependent. Psychophysiology, 56(11), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13436.
   Google Scholar
• *Framorando, D., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2019b). Prime warning moderates implicit affect primes’ effect on effort-related cardiac response in men. Biological Psychology, 142, 62–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.01.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Gendolla, G. H. E. (2015). Implicit affect primes effort: Basic processes, moderators, and boundary conditions. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(11), 606–619. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12208
   Google Scholar
• Gendolla, G. H. E., & Silvestrini, N. (2011). Smiles make it easier and so do frowns: Masked affective stimuli influence mental effort. Emotion, 11(2), 320–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, J., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). When fair is foul and foul is fair: Reverse priming in automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(4), 669–687. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermans, D., Spruyt, A., De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (2003). Affective priming with subliminally presented pictures. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 57(2), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herr, P. M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1106–1115. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herr, P. M., Sherman, S. J., & Fazio, R. H. (1983). On the consequences of priming: Assimilation and contrast effects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(4), 323–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(83)90026-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(2), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(77)80007-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huntsinger, J. R., Isbell, L. M., & Clore, G. L. (2014). The affective control of thought: Malleable, not fixed. Psychological Review, 121(4), 600–618. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izard, C. E. (2009). Emotion theory and research: Highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind; A Quarterly Review of Psychology and Philosophy, 9(34), 188–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188
   Google Scholar
• James, W. (1890). The emotions. In The principles of psychology (Vol. II, pp. 449–485). Henry Holt and Company. https://doi.org/10.1037/11059-009
   Google Scholar
• Keltner, D., & Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 13(5), 467–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379140
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klauer, K. C., Teige-Mocigemba, S., & Spruyt, A. (2009). Contrast effects in spontaneous evaluations: A psychophysical account. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 265–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kossmeier, M., Tran, U. S., & Voracek, M. (2019). Visualizing meta-analytic data with R package metaviz. R Package Version 0.3, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambie, J. A., & Marcel, A. J. (2002). Consciousness and the varieties of emotion experience: A theoretical framework. Psychological Review, 109(2), 219–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.2.219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lasauskaite, R., Gendolla, G. H. E., & Silvestrini, N. (2013). Do sadness-primes make me work harder because they make me sad? Cognition and Emotion, 27(1), 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.689756
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Lenhard, W., & Lenhard, A. (2016). Calculation of effect sizes. Dettelbach (Germany): Psychometrica https://www.psychometrica.de/effect_size.html. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3478.4245
   Google Scholar
• Loersch, C., & Payne, B. K. (2011). The situated inference model: An integrative account of the effects of primes on perception, behavior, and motivation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(3), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406921
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. D., & Gaschke, Y. N. (1988). The experience and meta-experience of mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(1), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.1.102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melnikoff, D. E., & Bargh, J. A. (2018). The mythical number two. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(4), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 297–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, J. S., Ohman, A., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). A subcortical pathway to the right amygdala mediating “unseen” fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96(4), 1680–1685. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.4.1680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, S. T., & Zajonc, R. B. (1993). Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(5), 723–739. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Pillaud, N., & Ric, F. (2018). Unpublished raw data on the moderation by kinesthesia and interoception of the link between degraded affective stimuli and mood. University of Bordeaux.
   Google Scholar
• *Pillaud, N., & Ric, F. (2020). The impact of automatic evaluation on mood: An awareness-dependent effect. Cognition and Emotion, 34(7), 1457–1472. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1775555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rellecke, J., Palazova, M., Sommer, W., & Schacht, A. (2011). On the automaticity of emotion processing in words and faces: Event-related brain potentials evidence from a superficial task. Brain and Cognition, 77(1), 23–32. https://docelec.u-bordeaux.fr; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ric, F. (2004). Effects of the activation of affective information on stereotyping: When sadness increases stereotype use. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(10), 1310–1321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204264661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ric, F., Leygue, C., & Adam, C. (2004). Activation of affective information and stereotyping: Does the salience of affective information matter? Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition, 22(4–5), 497–517.
   Google Scholar
• Rohr, M., & Wentura, D. (2021). Degree and complexity of non-conscious emotional information processing—A review of masked priming studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.689369.
   Google Scholar
• Rothermund, K. (2003). Motivation and attention: Incongruent effects of feedback on the processing of valence. Emotion, 3(3), 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.3.3.223
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothermund, K. (2011). Counter-regulation and control-dependency: Affective processing biases in the service of action regulation. Social Psychology, 42(1), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothermund, K., Gast, A., & Wentura, D. (2011). Incongruency effects in affective processing: Automatic motivational counter-regulation or mismatch-induced salience? Cognition and Emotion, 25(3), 413–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.537075
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotteveel, M., de Groot, P., Geutskens, A., & Phaf, R. H. (2001). Stronger suboptimal than optimal affective priming? Emotion, 1(4), 348–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.1.4.348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rougier, M., Muller, D., Ric, F., Alexopoulos, T., Batailler, C., Smeding, A., & Aubé, B. (2018). A new look at sensorimotor aspects in approach/avoidance tendencies: The role of visual whole-body movement information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76, 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.12.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805–819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, J. A., Weiss, A., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1989). Affect grid: A single-item scale of pleasure and arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(3), 493–502. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.3.493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer, K. R., & Moors, A. (2019). The emotion process: Event appraisal and component differentiation. Annual Review of Psychology, 70(1), 719–745. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011854
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulreich, S., Gerhardt, H., & Heekeren, H. R. (2016). Incidental fear cues increase monetary loss aversion. Emotion, 16(3), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Schüpbach, R. L., Gendolla, G. H. E., & Silvestrini, N. (2014). Contrasting the effects of suboptimally versus optimally presented affect primes on effort-related cardiac response. Motivation and Emotion, 38(6), 748–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9438-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwager, S., & Rothermund, K. (2013). Counter-regulation triggered by emotions: Positive/negative affective states elicit opposite valence biases in affective processing. Cognition and Emotion, 27(5), 839–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.750599
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins, & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• *Silvestrini, N., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2011a). Do not prime too much: Prime frequency effects of masked affective stimuli on effort-related cardiovascular response. Biological Psychology, 87(2), 195–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.01.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Silvestrini, N., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2011b). Masked affective stimuli moderate task difficulty effects on effort-related cardiovascular response. Psychophysiology, 48(2011), 1157–1164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01181.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silvia, P. J., Phillips, A. G., Baumgaertner, M. K., & Maschauer, E. L. (2006). Emotion concepts and self-focused attention: Exploring parallel effects of emotional states and emotional knowledge. Motivation and Emotion, 30(3), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9033-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, R. L., & Corbit, J. D. (1974). An opponent-process theory of motivation: I temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review, 81(2), 119–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strack, F., Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Kübler, A., & Wänke, M. (1993). Awareness of the influence as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420230105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tempel, K., Kuchinke, L., Urton, K., Schlochtermeier, L. H., Kappelhoff, H., & Jacobs, A. M. (2013). Effects of positive pictograms and words: An emotional word superiority effect? Journal of Neurolinguistics, 26(6), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2013.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, S. G., & Higgins, J. P. T. (2002). How should meta-regression analyses be undertaken and interpreted? Statistics in Medicine, 21(11), 1559–1573. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentine, J. C., Pigott, T. D., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). How many studies do you need? A primer on statistical power for meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 35(2), 215–247. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998609346961
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valins, S. (1966). Cognitive effects of false heart-rate feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(4), 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023791
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Houwelingen, H. C., Arends, L. R., & Stijnen, T. (2002). Advanced methods in meta-analysis: Multivariate approach and meta-regression. Statistics in Medicine, 21(4), 589–624. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viechtbauer, W., & Cheung, M. W. (2010). Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wentura, D. (1999). Activation and inhibition of affective information: Evidence for negative priming in the evaluation task. Cognition and Emotion, 13(1), 65–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379375
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C., & Wilbarger, J. L. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkielman, P., & Gogolushko, Y. (2018). Influence of suboptimally and optimally presented affective pictures and words on consumption-related behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkielman, P., Zajonc, R. B., & Schwarz, N. (1997). Subliminal affective priming resists attributional interventions. Cognition and Emotion, 11(4), 433–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999397379872
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. (2006). Feeling is for doing: A pragmatic approach to the study of emotions in economic behavior. In D. De Cremer, M. Zeelenberg, & J. K. Murnighan (Eds.), Social psychology and economics (pp. 117–137). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
   Google Scholar