5,040
Views
169
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
INVITED REVIEW

Emotion regulation in depression: Examining the role of cognitive processes

Cognition & Emotion Lecture at the 2009 ISRE Meeting

&
Pages 913-939 | Received 05 May 2009, Accepted 15 Mar 2010, Published online: 27 Aug 2010

REFERENCES

  • Aldao , A. , Nolen-Hoeksema , S. and Schweizer , S. 2010 . Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review . Clinical Psychology Review , 30 : 217 – 237 .
  • Alloy , L. B. , Abramson , L. Y. and Francis , E. L. 1999 . Do negative cognitive styles confer vulnerability to depression? . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 : 128 – 132 .
  • Alloy , L. B. , Abramson , L. Y. , Hogan , M. E. , Whitehouse , W. G. , Rose , D. T. Robinson , M. S. 2000 . The Temple-Wisconsin cognitive vulnerability to depression project: Lifetime history of axis I psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 : 403 – 418 .
  • Barry , E. S. , Naus , M. J. and Lynn , P. R. 2004 . Depression and implicit memory: Understanding mood congruent memory bias . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 28 : 387 – 414 .
  • Beard , C. and Amir , N. 2008 . A multi-session interpretation modification program: Changes in interpretation and social anxiety symptoms . Behavior Research and Therapy , 46 : 1135 – 1141 .
  • Beauregard , M. , Levesque , J. and Bourgouin , P. 2001 . Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion . Journal of Neuroscience , 21 : 6993 – 7000 .
  • Beck , A. T. 1976 . Cognitive therapy and emotional disorders , New York : International Universities Press .
  • Beevers , C. G. and Carver , C. S. 2003 . Attentional bias and mood persistence as prospective predictors of dysphoria . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 27 : 619 – 637 .
  • Beevers , C. G. and Meyer , B. 2008 . I feel fine but the glass is still half empty: Thought suppression biases information processing despite recovery from a dysphoric mood state . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 32 : 323 – 332 .
  • Bisson , M. and Sears , C. 2007 . The effect of depressed mood on the interpretation of ambiguity, with and without negative mood induction . Cognition and Emotion , 21 : 614 – 645 .
  • Bjork , R. A. 1972 . “ Theoretical implications of directed forgetting ” . In Coding processes in human memory , Edited by: Melton , A. W. and Martin , E. 217 – 235 . Washington, DC : Winston .
  • Bloch , L. , Moran , E. K. and Kring , A. M. 2009 . “ On the need for conceptual and definitional clarity in emotion regulation research ” . In Emotion regulation and psychopathology , Edited by: Kring , A. M. and Sloan , D. 88 – 104 . New York : Guilford Press .
  • Bradley , B. P. , Mogg , K. and Lee , S. C. 1997 . Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 35 : 911 – 927 .
  • Bradley , B. P. , Mogg , K. , Millar , N. and White , J. 1995 . Selective processing of negative information: Effects of clinical anxiety, concurrent depression, and awareness . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 104 : 532 – 536 .
  • Butler , G. and Mathews , A. 1983 . Cognitive processes in anxiety . Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy , 5 : 51 – 62 .
  • Campbell-Sills , L. and Barlow , D. 2007 . “ Incorporating emotion regulation into conceptualizations and treatments of anxiety and mood disorders ” . In Handbook of emotion regulation , Edited by: Gross , J. J. 542 – 559 . New York : Guilford Press .
  • Campbell-Sills , L. , Barlow , D. , Brown , T. and Hofmann , S. 2006 . Acceptability and suppression of negative emotion in anxiety and mood disorders . Emotion , 6 : 587 – 595 .
  • Carton , J. S. , Kessler , E. A. and Pape , C. L. 1999 . Nonverbal decoding skills and relationship well-being in adults . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 23 : 91 – 100 .
  • Caseras , X. , Garner , M. , Bradley , B. and Mogg , K. 2007 . Biases in visual orienting to negative and positive scenes in dysphoria: An eye movement study . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 116 : 491 – 497 .
  • Charles , S. T. , Mather , M. and Carstensen , L. L. 2003 . Aging and emotional memory: The forgettable nature of negative images for older adults . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 132 : 310 – 324 .
  • Ciesla , J. A. and Roberts , J. E. 2002 . Self-directed thought and response to treatment for depression: A preliminary investigation . Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly , 16 : 435 – 453 .
  • Ciesla , J. A. and Roberts , J. E. 2007 . Rumination, negative cognition, and their interactive effects on depressed mood . Emotion , 7 : 555 – 565 .
  • Compton , R. , Heller , W. , Banich , M. , Palmieri , P. and Miller , G. 2000 . Responding to threat: Hemispheric asymmetries and interhemispheric division of input . Neuropsychology , 14 : 254 – 264 .
  • Cowan , N. 1999 . “ An embedded-processes model of working memory ” . In Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , Edited by: Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 62 – 101 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Dalgleish , T. , Spinks , H. , Yiend , J. and Kuyken , W. 2001 . Autobiographical memory style in seasonal affective disorder and its relationship to future symptom remission . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 110 : 335 – 340 .
  • Davis , R. N. and Nolen-Hoeksema , S. 2000 . Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 24 : 699 – 711 .
  • Dearing , K. and Gotlib , I. 2009 . Interpretation of ambiguous information in girls at risk for depression . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 37 : 79 – 91 .
  • Donaldson , C. , Lam , D. and Mathews , A. 2007 . Rumination and attention in major depression . Behavior Research and Therapy , 45 : 2664 – 2678 .
  • Ehring , T. , Fischer , S. , Schnülle , J. , Bösterling , A. and Tuschen-Caffier , B. 2008 . Characteristics of emotion regulation in recovered depressed versus never depressed individuals . Personality and Individual Differences , 44 : 1574 – 1584 .
  • Eippert , F. , Veit , R. , Weiskopf , N. , Erb , M. , Birbaumer , N. and Anders , S. 2007 . Regulation of emotional responses elicited by threat-related stimuli . Human Brain Mapping , 28 : 409 – 423 .
  • Eizenman , M. , Yu , L. H. , Grupp , L. , Eizenman , E. , Ellenbogen , M. Gemar , M. 2003 . A naturalistic visual scanning approach to assess selective attention in major depressive disorder . Psychiatry Research , 118 : 117 – 128 .
  • Ekman , P. and Friesen , W. V. 1976 . Pictures of facial effect , Palo Alto, CA : Consulting Psychologists Press .
  • Ellenbogen , M. , Schwartzman , A. , Stewart , J. and Walker , C. 2002 . Stress and selective attention: The interplay of mood, cortisol levels, and emotional information processing . Psychophysiology , 39 : 723 – 732 .
  • Ellenbogen , M. , Schwartzman , A. , Stewart , J. and Walker , C. 2006 . Automatic and effortful emotional information processing regulates different aspects of the stress response . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 31 : 373 – 387 .
  • Ellsworth , P. C. and Scherer , K. R. 2003 . “ Appraisal processes in emotion ” . In Handbook of affective sciences , Edited by: Davidson , R. J. 572 – 595 . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Erber , R. and Erber , M. W. 1994 . Beyond mood and social judgment: Mood incongruent recall and mood regulation . European Journal of Social Psychology , 24 : 79 – 88 .
  • Erber , R. and Tesser , A. 1992 . Task effort and the regulation of mood: The absorption hypothesis . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 28 : 339 – 359 .
  • Felsten , G. 2002 . Minor stressors and depressed mood: Reactivity is more strongly correlated than total stress . Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress , 18 : 75 – 81 .
  • Fresco , D. M. , Alloy , L. B. and Reilly Harrington , N. 2006 . Association of attributional style for negative and positive events and the occurrence of life events with depression and anxiety . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 25 : 1140 – 1159 .
  • Friedman , N. P. and Miyake , A. 2004 . The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 133 : 101 – 135 .
  • Garnefski , N. and Kraaij , V. 2006 . Relationships between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: A comparative study of five specific samples . Personality and Individual Differences , 40 : 1659 – 1669 .
  • Garnefski , N. and Kraaij , V. 2007 . The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire: Psychometric features and prospective relationships with depression and anxiety in adults . European Journal of Psychological Assessment , 23 : 141 – 149 .
  • Goeleven , E. , DeRaedt , R. , Baert , S. and Koster , E. H. W. 2006 . Deficient inhibition of emotional information in depression . Journal of Affective Disorders , 93 : 149 – 152 .
  • Goldin , P. , McRae , K. , Ramel , W. and Gross , J. 2008 . The neural bases of emotion regulation: Reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion . Biological Psychiatry , 63 : 577 – 586 .
  • Gross , J. J. 1998 . Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 224 – 237 .
  • Gross , J. J. 2002 . Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences . Psychophysiology , 39 : 281 – 291 .
  • Gross , J. J. and John , O. P. 2003 . Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 85 : 348 – 362 .
  • Gross , J. J. and Levenson , R. W. 1997 . Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 106 : 95 – 103 .
  • Gross , J. J. and Thompson , R. 2007 . “ Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations ” . In Handbook of emotion regulation , Edited by: Gross , J. J. 3 – 24 . New York : Guilford Press .
  • Hale , W. W. III 1998 Judgment of facial expressions and depression persistence . Psychiatry Research , 80 , 265 274 .
  • Hansen , C. H. and Hansen , R. D. 1994 . “ Automatic emotion: Attention and facial efference ” . In The heart's eye: Emotional influences in perception and attention , Edited by: Niedenthal , P. M. and Kitayama , S. 217 – 243 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
  • Harvey , A. G. , Watkins , E. , Mansell , W. and Shafran , R. 2004 . Cognitive behavioural processes across psychological disorders: A transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
  • Hasher , L. Zacks , R. T. 1988 . Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view . In : G. H. Bower The psychology of learning and motivation 22 193 225 San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
  • Hasher , L. , Zacks , R. T. and May , C. P. 1999 . “ Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age ” . In Attention and performance XVII. Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application , Edited by: Gopher , D. and Koriat , A. 653 – 675 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
  • Hertel , P. T. 1997 . On the contributions of deficient cognitive control to memory impairments in depression . Cognition and Emotion , 11 : 569 – 584 .
  • Hertel , P. T. and Gerstle , M. 2003 . Depressive deficits in forgetting . Psychological Science , 14 : 573 – 578 .
  • Holahan , C. J. , Moos , R. H. , Holahan , C. K. , Brennan , P. L. and Schutte , K. K. 2005 . Stress generation, avoidance coping, and depressive symptoms: A 10-year model . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 73 : 658 – 666 .
  • Hollon , S. D. , Stewart , M. O. and Strunk , D. 2006 . Cognitive behavior therapy has enduring effects in the treatment of depression and anxiety . Annual Review of Psychology , 57 : 285 – 315 .
  • Ingram , R. E. , Nelson , T. , Steidtmann , D. K. and Bistricky , S. L . 2007 . Comparative data on child and adolescent cognitive measures associated with depression . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 75 : 390 – 403 .
  • Isen , A. M. 1984 . “ Toward understanding the role of affect in cognition ” . In Handbook of social cognition , Edited by: Wyer , R. S. and Srull , T. S. 179 – 236 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
  • Johnson , D. 2009a . Emotional attention set-shifting and its relationship to anxiety and emotion regulation . Emotion , 9 : 681 – 690 .
  • Johnson , D. 2009b . Goal-directed attentional deployment to emotional faces and individual differences in emotional regulation . Journal of Research in Personality , 43 : 8 – 13 .
  • Johnstone , T. , van Reekum , C. , Urry , H. , Kalin , N. and Davidson , R. 2007 . Failure to regulate: Counterproductive recruitment of top-down prefrontal-subcortical circuitry in major depression . Journal of Neuroscience , 27 : 8877 – 8884 .
  • Joormann , J. 2004 . Attentional bias in dysphoria: The role of inhibitory processes . Cognition and Emotion , 18 : 125 – 147 .
  • Joormann , J. 2005 . “ Inhibition, rumination, and mood regulation in depression ” . In Cognitive limitations in aging and psychopathology: Attention, working memory, and executive functions , Edited by: Engle , R. W. , Sedek , G. , von Hecker , U. and McIntosh , D. N. 275 – 312 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
  • Joormann , J. 2006 . The relation of rumination and inhibition: Evidence from a negative priming task . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 30 : 149 – 160 .
  • Joormann , J. 2008 . “ Cognitive aspects of depression ” . In Handbook of depression , Edited by: Gotlib , I. H. and Hammen , C. 298 – 321 . New York : Guilford Press .
  • Joormann , J. in press Inhibition and emotion regulation in depression . Current Directions in Psychological Science .
  • Joormann , J. and Gotlib , I. H. 2006 . Is this happiness I see? Biases in the identification of emotional facial expressions in depression and social phobia . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 115 : 705 – 714 .
  • Joormann , J. and Gotlib , I. H. 2007 . Selective attention to emotional faces following recovery from depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 116 : 80 – 85 .
  • Joormann , J. and Gotlib , I. H. 2008 . Updating the contents of working memory in depression: Interference from irrelevant negative material . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 117 : 182 – 192 .
  • Joormann , J. and Gotlib , I. H. 2010 . Emotion regulation in depression: Relation to cognitive inhibition . Cognition and Emotion , 24 : 281 – 298 .
  • Joormann , J. , Hertel , P. T. , Brozovich , F. and Gotlib , I. H. 2005 . Remembering the good, forgetting the bad: Intentional forgetting of emotional material in depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 114 : 640 – 648 .
  • Joormann , J. , Hertel , P. , LeMoult , J. and Gotlib , I. H. 2009 . Training intentional forgetting of negative material in depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 118 : 34 – 43 .
  • Joormann , J. Levens , S. Gotlib , I. H. 2009 . Manipulating emotional material in working memory: Depression-associated deficits . Manuscript in preparation.
  • Joormann , J. and Siemer , M. 2004 . Memory accessibility, mood regulation, and dysphoria: Difficulties in repairing sad mood with happy memories? . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 113 : 179 – 188 .
  • Joormann , J. , Siemer , M. and Gotlib , I. H. 2007a . Mood regulation in depression: Differential effects of distraction and recall of happy memories on sad mood . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 116 : 484 – 490 .
  • Joormann , J. , Talbot , L. and Gotlib , I. H. 2007b . Biased processing of emotional information in girls at risk for depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 116 : 135 – 143 .
  • Joormann , J. and Tran , T. 2010 . Rumination and intentional forgetting of emotional material . Cognition and Emotion , 23 : 1233 – 1246 .
  • Joormann , J. , Yoon , K. L. and Siemer , M. 2010 . “ Cognition, attention and emotion regulation ” . In Emotion regulation and psychopathology: A transdiagnostic approach to etiology and treatment , Edited by: Kring , A. and Sloan , D. 174 – 203 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
  • Josephson , B. , Singer , J. and Salovey , P. 1996 . Mood regulation and memory: Repairing sad moods with happy memories . Cognition and Emotion , 10 ( 4 ) : 437 – 444 .
  • Kalisch , R. , Wiech , K. , Critchley , H. , Seymour , B. , O'Doherty , J. Oakley , D. 2005 . Anxiety reduction through detachment: subjective, physiological, and neural effects . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 17 : 874 – 883 .
  • Kalisch , R. , Wiech , K. , Herrmann , K. and Dolan , R. 2006 . Neural correlates of self-distraction from anxiety and a process model of cognitive emotion regulation . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 18 : 1266 – 1276 .
  • Kircanski , K. , Craske , M. G. and Bjork , R. A. 2008 . Thought suppression enhances memory bias for threat material . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 46 : 462 – 476 .
  • Koole , S. 2009 . The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review . Cognition and Emotion , 23 : 4 – 41 .
  • Koster , E. , DeRaedt , R. , Goeleven , E. , Franck , E. and Crombez , G. 2005 . Mood-congruent attentional bias in dysphoria: Maintained attention to and impaired disengagement from negative information . Emotion , 5 : 446 – 455 .
  • Kring , A. and Werner , K. 2004 . “ Emotion regulation and psychopathology ” . In The regulation of emotion , Edited by: Philippot , P. and Feldman , R. S. 359 – 385 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
  • Kross , E. and Ayduk , O. 2008 . Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 34 : 924 – 938 .
  • Lavender , A. and Watkins , E. 2004 . Rumination and future thinking in depression . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 43 : 129 – 142 .
  • Lawson , C. and MacLeod , C. 1999 . Depression and the interpretation of ambiguity . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 37 : 463 – 474 .
  • Lawson , C. , MacLeod , C. and Hammond , G. 2002 . Interpretation revealed in the blink of an eye: Depressive bias in the resolution of ambiguity . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 111 : 321 – 328 .
  • Lazarus , R. 1964 . A laboratory approach to the dynamics of psychological stress . American Psychologist , 19 ( 6 ) : 400 – 411 .
  • Lazarus , R. S. 1991 . Emotion and adaptation , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
  • Lazarus , R. S. 1999 . Stress and emotion: A new synthesis , New York : Springer .
  • Lazarus , R. S. and Folkman , S. 1984 . Stress, appraisal, and coping , New York : Springer .
  • Lerner , J. S. and Keltner , D. 2000 . Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice . Cognition and Emotion , 14 : 473 – 494 .
  • Lim , S. L. and Kim , J. H. 2005 . Cognitive processing of emotional information in depression, panic, and somatoform disorder . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 114 : 50 – 61 .
  • Linville , P. 1996 . Attention inhibition: Does it underlie ruminative thought? In R. S. Wyer Jr Ruminative thoughts. Advances in social cognition Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc 9 121 133
  • Liverant , G. I. , Brown , T. A. , Barlow , D. H. and Roemer , L. 2008 . Emotion regulation in unipolar depression: The effects of acceptance and suppression of subjective emotional experience on the intensity and duration of sadness and negative affect . Behavior Research and Therapy , 46 : 1201 – 1209 .
  • Lyubomirsky , S. , Caldwell , N. D. and Nolen Hoeksema , S. 1998 . Effects of ruminative and distracting responses to depressed mood on retrieval of autobiographical memories . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 : 166 – 177 .
  • Lyubomirsky , S. and Nolen-Hoeksema , S. 1993 . Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 65 : 339 – 349 .
  • Lyubomirsky , S. and Nolen Hoeksema , S. 1995 . Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 176 – 190 .
  • Mackintosh , B. , Mathews , A. , Yiend , J. , Ridgeway , V. and Cook , E. 2006 . Induced biases in emotional interpretation influence stress vulnerability and endure despite changes in context . Behavior Therapy , 37 : 209 – 222 .
  • MacLeod , C. and Hagan , R. 1992 . Individual differences in the selective processing of threatening information, and emotional responses to a stressful life event . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 30 : 151 – 161 .
  • MacLeod , C. , Rutherford , E. , Campbell , L. , Ebsworthy , G. and Holker , L. 2002 . Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 111 : 107 – 123 .
  • Martin , L. L. and Tesser , A. 1996 . “ Some ruminative thoughts ” . In Advances in social cognition , Edited by: Wyer , R. S. 1 – 47 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
  • Mathews , A. and Mackintosh , B. 2000 . Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 : 602 – 615 .
  • Mathews , A. and MacLeod , C. 2005 . Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders . Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 1 : 167 – 195 .
  • Matt , G. E. , Vazquez , C. and Campbell , W. K. 1992 . Mood-congruent recall of affectively toned stimuli: A meta-analytic review . Clinical Psychology Review , 12 : 227 – 255 .
  • Mauss , I. B. , Cook , C. L. and Gross , J. J. 2007 . Automatic emotion regulation during anger provocation . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 43 ( 5 ) : 698 – 711 .
  • McFarland , C. and Buehler , R. 1998 . The impact of negative affect on autobiographical memory: The role of self-focused attention to moods . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 75 ( 6 ) : 1424 – 1440 .
  • Miyake , A. and Shah , P. 1999 . Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Mogg , K. , Bradley , B. P. and Williams , R. 1995 . Attentional bias in anxiety and depression: The role of awareness . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 34 : 17 – 36 .
  • Mogg , K. , Bradley , B. P. , Williams , R. and Mathews , A. 1993 . Subliminal processing of emotional information in anxiety and depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 102 : 304 – 311 .
  • Mogg , K. , Millar , N. and Bradley , B. P. 2000 . Biases in eye movements to threatening facial expressions in generalized anxiety disorder and depressive disorder . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 : 695 – 704 .
  • Morrow , J. and Nolen-Hoeksema , S. 1990 . Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 58 : 519 – 527 .
  • Neill , W. T. , Valdes , L. A. and Terry , K. M. 1995 . “ Selective attention and the inhibitory control of cognition ” . In Interference and inhibition in cognition , Edited by: Dempster , F. N. and Brainerd , C. J. 207 – 261 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. 1991 . Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 100 : 569 – 582 .
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. 2000 . The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 : 504 – 511 .
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. and Morrow , J. 1991 . A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 61 ( 1 ) : 115 – 121 .
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. , Stice , E. , Wade , E. and Bohon , C. 2007 . Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 116 : 198 – 207 .
  • Nolen-Hoeksema , S. , Wisco , B. E. and Lyubomirsky , S. 2008 . Rethinking rumination . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 3 : 400 – 424 .
  • Ochsner , K. N. , Bunge , S. A. , Gross , J. J. and Gabrieli , J. D. E. 2002 . Rethinking feelings: An fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 14 : 1215 – 1229 .
  • Ochsner , K. N. and Gross , J. 2005 . The cognitive control of emotion . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 9 ( 5 ) : 242 – 249 .
  • Ochsner , K. N. and Gross , J. 2008 . Cognitive emotion regulation: Insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 17 : 153 – 158 .
  • Ortony , A. , Clore , G. and Collins , A. 1988 . The cognitive structure of emotions , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Park , R. J. , Goodyer , I. M. and Teasdale , J. D. 2004 . Effects of induced rumination and distraction on mood and overgeneral autobiographical memory in adolescent major depressive disorder and controls . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 45 : 996 – 1006 .
  • Parrott , W. and Sabini , J. 1990 . Mood and memory under natural conditions: Evidence for mood incongruent recall . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 ( 2 ) : 321 – 336 .
  • Peterson , C. , Semmel , A. , von Baeyer , C. , Abramson , L. Y. , Metalsky , G. I. and Seligman , M. E. P. 1982 . The Attributional Style Questionnaire . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 6 : 287 – 299 .
  • Philippot , P. and Brutoux , F. 2008 . Induced rumination dampens executive processes in dysphoric young adults . Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 39 : 219 – 227 .
  • Power , M. J. , Dalgleish , T. , Claudio , V. , Tata , P. and Kentish , J. 2000 . The directed forgetting task: Application to emotionally valent material . Journal of Affective Disorders , 57 : 147 – 157 .
  • Powers , D. , Gallagher-Thompson , D. and Kraemer , H. 2002 . Coping and depression in Alzheimer's caregivers: Longitudinal evidence of stability. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B . Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 57 : 205 – 211 .
  • Ridout , N. , Astell , A. , Reid , I. , Glen , T. and O'Carroll , R. 2003 . Memory bias for emotional facial expressions in major depression . Cognition and Emotion , 17 : 101 – 122 .
  • Rinck , M. and Becker , E. S. 2005 . A comparison of attentional biases and memory biases in women with social phobia and major depression . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 114 : 62 – 74 .
  • Rude , S. S. , Wenzlaff , R. M. , Gibbs , B. , Vane , J. and Whitney , T. 2002 . Negative processing biases predict subsequent depressive symptoms . Cognition and Emotion , 16 : 423 – 440 .
  • Rusting , C. L. and DeHart , T. 2000 . Retrieving positive memories to regulate negative mood: Consequences for mood-congruent memory . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 78 ( 4 ) : 737 – 752 .
  • Scher , C. D. , Ingram , R. E. and Segal , Z. V. 2005 . Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: Empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression . Clinical Psychology Review , 25 : 487 – 510 .
  • Scherer , K. R. 1984 . “ On the nature and function of emotion: A component process model ” . In Approaches to emotion , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. and Ekman , P. 293 – 318 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
  • Scherer , K. R. 2001 . “ Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 92 – 120 . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Siegle , G. , Ghinassi , F. and Thase , M. 2007a . Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: Summary of an emerging field and an extended example of cognitive control training for depression . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 31 : 235 – 262 .
  • Siegle , G. , Thompson , W. , Carter , C. , Steinhauer , S. and Thase , M. 2007b . Increased amygdala and decreased dorsolateral prefrontal BOLD responses in unipolar depression: Related and independent features . Biological Psychiatry , 61 : 198 – 209 .
  • Siegle , G. J. , Steinhauer , S. R. , Thase , M. E. , Stenger , A. and Carter , C. S. 2002 . Can't shake that feeling: Event-related fMRI assessment of sustained amygdala activity in response to emotional information in depressed individuals . Biological Psychiatry , 51 : 693 – 707 .
  • Siemer , M. 2001 . Mood-specific effects on appraisal and emotion judgments . Cognition and Emotion , 15 : 453 – 485 .
  • Siemer , M. 2005a . Moods as multiple-object directed and as objectless affective states: An examination of the dispositional theory of moods . Cognition and Emotion , 19 : 815 – 845 .
  • Siemer , M. 2005b . Mood-congruent cognitions constitute mood experience . Emotion , 5 : 296 – 308 .
  • Siemer , M. , Mauss , I. and Gross , J. 2007 . Same situation–different emotions: How appraisals shape our emotions . Emotion , 7 : 592 – 600 .
  • Siemer , M. and Reisenzein , R. 2007 . Appraisals and emotions: Can you have one without the other? . Emotion , 7 : 26 – 29 .
  • Singer , A. and Dobson , K. 2007 . An experimental investigation of the cognitive vulnerability to depression . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 45 ( 3 ) : 563 – 575 .
  • Smith , S. and Petty , R. 1995 . Personality moderators of mood congruency effects on cognition: The role of self-esteem and negative mood regulation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 ( 6 ) : 1092 – 1107 .
  • Spielberger , C. D. , Gorusch , R. L. and Lushene , R. E. 1971 . State-Trait Anxiety Inventory , Palo Alto, CA : Consulting Psychologists Press .
  • Surguladze , S. A. , Young , A. W. , Senior , C. , Brebion , G. , Travis , M. J. and Phillips , M. L. 2004 . Recognition accuracy and response bias to happy and sad facial expressions in patients with major depression . Neuropsychology , 18 : 212 – 218 .
  • Urry , H. L. , van Reekum , C. M. , Johnstone , T. , Kalin , N. H. , Thurow , M. E. Schaefer , H. S. 2006 . Amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex are inversely coupled during regulation of negative affect and predict the diurnal pattern of cortisol secretion among older adults . Journal of Neuroscience , 26 : 4415 – 4425 .
  • van Reekum , C. , Urry , H. , Johnstone , T. , Thurow , M. , Frye , C. Jackson , C. 2007 . Individual differences in amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity are associated with evaluation speed and psychological well-being . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 19 : 237 – 248 .
  • Wadlinger , H. and Isaacowitz , D. 2008 . Looking happy: The experimental manipulation of a positive visual attention bias . Emotion , 8 : 121 – 126 .
  • Walker , W. R. , Skowronski , J. J. and Thompson , C. P. 2003 . Life is pleasant—and memory helps to keep it that way! . Review of General Psychology , 7 : 203 – 210 .
  • Watkins , E. 2004 . Appraisals and strategies associated with rumination and worry . Personality and Individual Differences , 37 : 679 – 694 .
  • Watkins , E. 2008 . Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought . Psychological Bulletin , 134 : 163 – 206 .
  • Watkins , E. , Baeyens , C. and Read , R. 2009 . Concreteness training reduces dysphoria: Proof-of-principle for repeated cognitive bias modification in depression . Journal of Neurology Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 118 : 55 – 64 .
  • Watkins , E. and Brown , R. G. 2002 . Rumination and executive function in depression: An experimental study . Neurosurgery & Psychiatry , 72 : 400 – 402 .
  • Watkins , E. and Teasdale , J. D. 2001 . Rumination and overgeneral memory in depression: Effects of self-focus and analytic thinking . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 110 : 353 – 357 .
  • Watkins , E. and Teasdale , J. D. 2004 . Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression . Journal of Affective Disorders , 82 : 1 – 8 .
  • Watkins , P. C. 2002 . Implicit memory bias in depression . Cognition and Emotion , 16 : 381 – 402 .
  • Weissman , A. N. Beck , A. T. 1978 . Development and validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale: A preliminary investigation . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada .
  • Wenzlaff , R. , Rude , S. , Taylor , C. , Stoltz , C. and Sweatt , R. 2001 . Beneath the veil of thought suppression: Attentional bias and depression risk . Cognition and Emotion , 15 : 435 – 452 .
  • Wenzlaff , R. , Rude , S. and West , L. 2002 . Cognitive vulnerability to depression: The role of thought suppression and attitude certainty . Cognition and Emotion , 16 : 533 – 548 .
  • Williams , J. M. G. , Barnhofer , T. , Crane , C. , Hermans , D. , Raes , F. Watkins , E. 2007 . Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorders . Psychological Bulletin , 133 : 122 – 148 .
  • Williams , J. M. G. , Watts , F. , MacLeod , C. and Mathews , A. 1997 . Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders , 2nd ed , Chichester, , UK : Wiley .
  • Wilson , E. J. , MacLeod , C. , Mathews , A. and Rutherford , E. M. 2006 . The causal role of interpretive bias in anxiety reactivity . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 115 : 103 – 111 .
  • Yiend , J. , Mackintosh , B. and Mathews , A. 2005 . Enduring consequences of experimentally induced biases in interpretation . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 43 : 779 – 797 .
  • Yoon , K. L. Joormann , J. 2009 . Is timing everything? Sequential effects of rumination and distraction on interpersonal problem solving . Manuscript submitted for publication .
  • Yovel , I. and Mineka , S. 2005 . Emotion-congruent attentional biases: The perspective of hierarchical models of emotional disorders . Personality and Individual Differences , 38 : 785 – 795 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.