Muscle Dysmorphia, Gender Role Stress, and Sociocultural Influences

References

• American Psychological Association. 2000 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, , 4th ed. Arlington , VA : Author . text revision)
   Google Scholar
• Arrindell , W. A. , Kolk , M. , Martin , K. , Kwee , M. G. T. and Booms , E. O. H. 2003 . Masculine gender role stress: A potential predictor of phobic and obsessive-compulsive behavior . Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 24 : 251 – 267 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baird , A. L. and Grieve , F. G. 2006 . Exposure to male models in advertisements leads to a decrease in men’s body satisfaction . North American Journal of Psychology , 8 : 115 – 122 .
   Google Scholar
• Baram , M. 2009 . Shirtless Obama makes Washingtonian cover . Huffington Post , April 20 Retrieved May 11, 2009, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com
   Google Scholar
• Choate , L. H. 2005 . Toward a theoretical model of women’s body image resilience . Journal of Counseling and Development , 83 : 320 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dworkin , S. L. 2003 . “ A woman’s place is in the… cardiovascular room?? Gender relations, the body, and the gym ” . In Athletic intruders: Ethnographic research on women, culture, and exercise Edited by: Bolin , A. and Granskog , J. 131 – 158 . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dworkin , S. L. and Heywood , L. 2003 . Built to win: The female athlete as cultural icon Minneapolis , MN : University of Minnesota Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dworkin , S. L. and Wachs , F. L. 2009 . Body panic: Gender, health, and the selling of fitness New York : New York University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ebbeck , V. , Watkins , P. L. , Concepcion , R. Y. , Cardinal , B. J. and Hammermeister , J. 2009 . Muscle dysmorphia symptoms and their relationships to self-concept and negative affect among college recreational exercisers . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 21 : 262 – 275 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efthim , P. W. , Kenny , M. E. and Mahalik , J. R. 2001 . Gender role stress in relation to shame, guilt, and externalization . Journal of Counseling & Development , 79 : 430 – 438 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisler , R. M. 1995 . “ The relationship between masculine gender role stress and men’s health risk: The validation of a construct ” . In A new psychology of men Edited by: Levant , R. E. and Pollack , W. S. 207 – 225 . New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Eisler , R. M. and Skidmore , J. R. 1987 . Masculine gender role stress: Scale development and component factors in the appraisal of stressful situations . Behavior Modification , 11 : 123 – 136 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisler , R. M. , Skidmore , J. R. and Ward , C. H. 1988 . Masculine gender-role stress: Predictor of anger, anxiety, and health-risk behaviors . Journal of Personality Assessment , 52 : 133 – 141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , D. L. , Moe , E. L. , Goldberg , L. , DeFrancesco , C. A. , Durham , M. B. and Hix-Small , H. 2006 . Definition and outcome of a curriculum to prevent disordered eating and body-shaping drug use . Journal of School Health , 76 : 67 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritz , M. S. , MacKinnon , D. P. , Williams , J. , Goldberg , L. , Moe , E. L. and Elliot , D. 2005 . Analysis of baseline by treatment interactions in a drug prevention and health promotion program for high school male athletes . Addictive Behaviors , 30 : 1001 – 1005 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillespie , B. L. and Eisler , R. M. 1992 . Development of the feminine gender role stress scale: A cognitive-behavioral measure of stress, appraisal, and coping for women . Behavior Modification , 16 : 426 – 438 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodale , K. R. , Watkins , P. L. and Cardinal , B. J. 2001 . Muscle dysmporphia: A new form of eating disorder? . American Journal of Health Education , 32 : 260 – 266 .
   Google Scholar
• Gray , J. J. and Ginsberg , R. L. 2007 . “ Muscle dissatisfaction: An overview of psychological and cultural research and theory ” . In The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives Edited by: Thompson , J. K. and Cafri , G. 15 – 39 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Grieve , R. and Helmick , A. 2008 . The influence of men’s self-objectification on the drive for muscularity: Self-esteem, body satisfaction, and muscle dysmorphia . International Journal of Men’s Health , 7 : 288 – 298 .
   Google Scholar
• Gruber , A. J. 2007 . “ A more muscular female body ideal ” . In The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives Edited by: Thompson , J. K. and Cafri , G. 217 – 234 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Howe , N. , Strauss , W. and Matson , R. J. 2000 . Millennials rising: The next great generation New York : Random House, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Isono , M. , Watkins , P. L. and Lee , E. L. 2009 . “ Bon bon fatty girl: A qualitative exploration of weight bias in Singapore ” . In Fat studies reader Edited by: Rothblum , E. and Solovay , S. 127 – 138 . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , A. W. , Morrow , J. R. Jr. , Bowles , H. R. , FitzGerald , S. J. and Blair , S. N. 2007 . Construct validity evidence for single-response items to estimate physical activity levels in large sample studies . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 78 : 24 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane , M. J. 1995 . Resistance/transformation of the oppositional binary: Exposing sport as a continuum . Journal of Sport and Social Issues , 19 : 180 – 190 .
   Google Scholar
• Leit , R. A. , Pope , H. G. and Gray , J. J. 2001 . Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl centerfolds . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 29 : 90 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine , M. P. and Smolak , L. 2006 . The prevention of eating problems and eating disorders: Theory, research, and practice Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Maida , D. M. and Armstrong , S. L. 2005 . The classification of muscle dysmorphia . International Journal of Men’s Health , 4 : 73 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Morry , M. M. and Staska , S. L. 2001 . Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students . Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science , 33 : 269 – 279 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnen , S. K. and Smolak , L. 1997 . Femininity, masculinity, and disordered eating: A meta-analytic review . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 22 : 231 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munroe-Chandler , K. J. 2005 . A discussion of qualitative research in physical activity . Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology , 7 : 67 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Mussap , A. J. 2008 . Masculine gender role stress and the pursuit of muscularity . International Journal of Men’s Health , 7 : 72 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• National Coalition for Women and Girls in Sport. 2008 . Title IX at 35: Beyond the headlines Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Olivardia , R. 2001 . Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the largest of them all? The features and phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia . Harvard Review of Psychiatry , 9 : 254 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivardia , R. 2007 . “ Muscle dysmorphia: Characteristics, assessment, and treatment ” . In The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives Edited by: Thompson , J. K. and Cafri , G. 123 – 139 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Olivardia , R. , Pope , H. G. Jr. and Hudson , J. I. 2000 . Muscle dysmorphia in male weight lifters: A case control study . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 : 1291 – 1296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perini , G. M. and Bayer , B. M. 1996 . “ Out of our minds, in our bodies: Women’s embodied subjectivity and self-help culture ” . In Problems of theoretical psychology Edited by: Tolman , C. W. and Cherry , F. 291 – 303 . North York , , England : Captus Press .
   Google Scholar
• Petrie , T. A. , Austin , L. J. , Crowley , B. J. , Helmcamp , A. , Johnson , C. E. and Lester R…Walbrick , K. 1996 . Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for males . Sex Roles: A Journal of Research , 35 : 581 – 603 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pleck , J. H. 1981 . The myth of masculinity Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pope , J. G. , Olivardia , R. , Boroweicke , J. J. and Cohane , G. H. 2001 . The growing commercial value of the male body: A longitundinal survey of advertising in women’s magazines . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 70 : 189 – 192 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodin , J. , Silberstein , L. R. and Striegel-Moore , R. H. 1985 . “ Women and weight: A normative discontent ” . In Psychology and gender: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1984 Edited by: Sonderegger , T. B. 267 – 307 . Lincoln , NE : University of Nebraska Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sigmon , S. T. , Pells , J. J. , Edenfield , T. M. , Hermann , B. A. , Schartel , J. G. LaMattina , S. M. 2007 . Are we there yet? A review of gender comparisons in three behavioral journals through the 20th century . Behavior Therapy , 38 : 333 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence , J. T. , Helmreich , R. L. and Stapp , J. 1974 . The Personal Attributes Questionnaire: A measure of sex role stereotypes and masculinity-femininity . Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology , 4 : 43 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Stein , J. 2009 . Michelle Obama’s toned arms are debated . Los Angeles Times , March 29 Retrieved May 11, 2009, from http://www.latmes.com
   Google Scholar
• Strean , W. B. 1998 . Possibilities for qualitative research in sport psychology? . The Sport Psychologist , 12 : 333 – 345 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Striegel-Moore , R. H. , Silberstein , L. R. and Rodin , J. 1986 . Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia . American Psychologist , 41 : 246 – 263 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , J. K. , Heinberg , L. J. , Altabe , M. and Tantleff-Dunn , S. 2004 . Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Watkins , P. L. , Eisler , R. M. , Carpenter , L. , Schechtman , K. B. and Fisher , E. B. 1991 . Psychosocial and physiological correlates of male gender role stress among employed adults . Behavioral Medicine , 17 : 86 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiteley , J. A. and Winett , R. A. 2000 . “ Gender and fitness: Enhancing women’s health through principled exercise training ” . In Handbook of gender, culture, and health Edited by: Hersen , M. and Eisler , R. M. 343 – 373 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar