Irrational Performance Beliefs and Mental Well-Being Upon Returning to Sport During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Test of Mediation by Intolerance of Uncertainty

References

• Allison, W., Abraham, A., & Cale, A. (2016). Advances in coach education and development: From research to practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657486
   Google Scholar
• BBC Sport. (2020). Coronavirus: How the virus has impacted sporting events around the world. https://www.bbc.com/sport/51605235
   Google Scholar
• Bennett-Levy, J. (2003). Mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy: The case of automatic thought records and behavioural experiments. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 31(3), 261–277. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465803003035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birrell, J., Meares, K., Wilkinson, A., & Freeston, M. (2011). Toward a definition of intolerance of uncertainty: A review of factor analytical studies of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(7), 1198–1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boelen, P. A., & Lenferink, L. I. (2018). Latent class analysis of indicators of intolerance of uncertainty. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(3), 243–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec, T. D. (2002). Life in the future versus life in the present. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.1.76
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boswell, J. F., Thompson-Hollands, J., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Intolerance of uncertainty: A common factor in the treatment of emotional disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(6), 630–645. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslin, G., Shannon, S., Haughey, T., Donnelly, P., & Leavey, G. (2017). A systematic review of interventions to increase awareness of mental health and well-being in athletes, coaches,and officials. Systematic Reviews, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0568-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, C. M., Dowd, E. T., & Freeman, A. (2010). Rational and irrational beliefs and psychopathology. In D. David, S. J. Lynn, & A. Ellis (Eds.), Rational and irrational beliefs in human functioning and disturbances: Implications for research, theory, and practice (pp. 149–171). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195182231.003.0008
   Google Scholar
• Buschmann, T., Horn, R. A., Blankenship, V. R., Garcia, Y. E., & Bohan, K. B. (2018). The relationship between automatic thoughts and irrational beliefs predicting anxiety and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 137–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-017-0278-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadha, N., Turner, M. J., & Slater, M. (2019). Investigating irrational beliefs, cognitive appraisals, challenge and threat, and affective states in golfers approaching competitive situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2295. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
   Google Scholar
• Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C.C., Zbozinek, T., & Vervliet, B. (2014). Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 10–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas, M. J., Gosselin, P., & Ladouceur, R. (2001). Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(5), 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005553414688
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas, M. J., Savard, P., Gaudet, A., Turcotte, J., Laugesen, N., Robichaud, M., Francis, K., Koerner, N. (2007). Can the components of a cognitive model predict the severity of generalized anxiety disorder? Behavior Therapy, 38(2), 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas, M. J., Schwartz, A., & Francis, K. (2004). Brief report: Intolerance of uncertainty, worry, and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(6), 835–842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-004-0669-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis, A. (1994). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy: Revised and updated. Birch Lane. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.1.131
   Google Scholar
• Ellis, A., & Dryden, W. (2007). The practice of rational emotive behavior therapy. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeston, M. H., Rhéaume, J., Letarte, H., Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (1994). Why do people worry? Personality and Individual Differences, 17(6), 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90048-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavrilova, Y., & Donohue, B. (2018). Sport-specific mental health interventions in athletes: A call for optimization models sensitive to sport culture. Journal of Sport Behavior, 41(3), 283–304.
   Google Scholar
• Giles, S., Fletcher, D., Arnold, R., Ashfield, A., & Harrison, J. (2020). Measuring well-being in sport performers: Where are we now and how do we progress? Sports Medicine, 50(7), 1255–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01274-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselin, P., Ladouceur, R., Evers, A., Laverdiere, A., Routhier, S., & Tremblay-Picard, M. (2008). Evaluation of intolerance of uncertainty: Development and validation of a new self-report measure. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(8), 1427–1439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.02.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Håkansson, A., Moesch, K., Jönsson, C., & Kenttä, G. (2020). Potentially prolonged psychological distress from postponed Olympic and Paralympic games during COVID-19—Career uncertainty in elite athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hebert, E. A., & Dugas, M. J. (2019). Behavioral experiments for intolerance of uncertainty: Challenging the unknown in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 26(2), 421–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2018.07.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, D., Kind, A. J., Morrison, A. S., & Heimberg, R. G. (2014). Intolerance of uncertainty and immediate decision-making in high-risk situations. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 5(2), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.035113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. V., Meijen, C., McCarthy, P. J., & Sheffield, D. (2009). A theory of challenge and threat states in athletes. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2(2), 161–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840902829331
   Google Scholar
• Jordana, A., Turner, M. J., Ramis, Y., & Torregrossa, M. (2020). A systematic mapping review on the use of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) with athletes. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2020.1836673
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J., Kwon, J. H., Kim, J., Kim, E. J., Kim, H. E., Kyeong, S., & Kim, J. J. (2021). The effects of positive or negative self-talk on the alteration of brain functional connectivity by performing cognitive tasks. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94328-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuettel, A., Durand-Bush, N., & Larsen, C. H. (2021). Mental Health Profiles of Danish Youth Soccer Players: The Influence of Gender and Career Development. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2021-0035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, R. H., Clift, B. C., Boykoff, J., & Bekker, S. (2020). Athletes as community; athletes in community: Covid-19, sporting mega-events and athlete health protection. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(18), 1071–1072. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansell, P. C. (2021). Stress mindset in athletes: Investigating the relationships between beliefs, challenge and threat with psychological wellbeing. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 57, Article 102020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEvoy, P. M., & Mahoney, A. J. (2011). Achieving certainty about the structure of intolerance of uncertainty in a treatment-seeking sample with anxiety and depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(1), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay, M. T., & Andretta, J. R. (2017). Evidence for the psychometric validity, internal consistency,and measurement invariance of Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale scores in Scottish and Irish adolescents. Psychiatry Research, 255, 382–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijen, C., Turner, M., Jones, M. V., Sheffield, D., & McCarthy, P. (2020). A theory of challenge and threat states in athletes: A revised conceptualization. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 126. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesagno, C., Tibbert, S. J., Buchanan, E., Harvey, J. T., & Turner, M. J. (2021). Irrational beliefs and choking under pressure: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 33(6), 569–589. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2020.1737273
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nekić, M., & Mamić, S. (2019). Intolerance of uncertainty and mindfulness as determinants of anxiety and depression in female students. Behavioral Sciences, 9(12), Article 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9120135
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, A. R., Levy, A. R., Carson, F., Thompson, M. A., & Perry, J. L. (2016). The applicability of self-regulation theories in sport: Goal adjustment capacities, stress appraisals, coping, and well-being among athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 27, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.07.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, A., Madigan, D., Fairs, L., & Bailey, R. (2020). Mental health and psychological well-being among professional rugby league players from the UK. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 6(1), e000711. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000711
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pfefferbaum, B., & North, C. S. (2020). Mental health and the Covid-19 pandemic. New England Journal of Medicine, 383(6), 510–512. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2008017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purcell, R., Gwyther, K., & Rice, S. M. (2019). Mental health in elite athletes: Increased awareness requires an early intervention framework to respond to athlete needs. Sports Medicine - Open, 5(1), Article 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-019-0220-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raes, A. K., Koster, E. H. W., Loeys, T., & De Raedt, R. (2011). Pathways to change in one-session exposure with and without cognitive intervention: An exploratory study in spider phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(7), 964–971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid, H. (2002). The philosophical athlete. Carolina Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2004.9714652
   Google Scholar
• Ringdal, R., Bradley Eilertsen, M.-E., Bjørnsen, H. N., Espnes, G. A., & Moksnes, U. K. (2018). Validation of two versions of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale among Norwegian adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 46(7), 718–725. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494817735391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, G., & Freeston, M. (2015). Intolerance of uncertainty as a predictor of performance anxiety and robustness of sport confidence in university student-athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9(4), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2015-0008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel, R. D., Tenenbaum, G., & Galily, Y. (2020). The 2020 coronavirus pandemic as a change-event in sport performers’ careers: Conceptual and applied practice considerations. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 567966. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567966
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoemann, A. M., Boulton, A. J., & Short, S. D. (2017). Determining power and sample size for simple and complex mediation models. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617715068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, N., & Brewer, N. (2002). The dynamics of threat and challenge appraisals prior to stressful achievement events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 678–692. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A., Haycock, D., Jones, J., Greenough, K., Wilcock, R., & Braid, I. (2020). Exploring Mental Health and Illness in the UK Sports Coaching Workforce. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24), Article 9332. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sookman, D., & Pinard, G. (2002). Overestimation of threat and intolerance of uncertainty in obsessive compulsive disorder. In R. O. Frost & G. Steketee (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 63–89). Pergamon. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008043410-0/50006-4
   Google Scholar
• Stewart-Brown, S., Janmohamed, K., & Parkinson, J. (2008). Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale: User guide (Version 1). NHS Health Scotland. http://www.ocagingservicescollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/WEMWBS-User-Guide-Version-1-June-2008.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Stewart-Brown, S., Tennant, A., Tennant, R., Platt, S., Parkinson, J., & Weich, S. (2009). Internal construct validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): A Rasch analysis using data from the Scottish health education population survey. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 7(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-7-15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolin, D. F., Abramowitz, J. S., Brigidi, B. D., & Foa, E. B. (2003). Intolerance of uncertainty in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(2), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00182-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tukey, J. (1979). Study of robustness by simulation: Particularly improvement by adjustment and combination. In R. L. Launer & G. N. Wilkinson, (Eds.) Robustness in statistics (pp. 75–102). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-438150-6.50012-1
   Google Scholar
• Turner, M. (2016). Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), irrational and rational beliefs, and the mental health of athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1423. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. J., & Allen, M. (2018). Confirmatory factor analysis of the irrational Performance Beliefs Inventory (iPBI) in a sample of amateur and semi-professional athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 35, 126–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.11.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M., Aspin, G., & Gillman, J. (2019). Maladaptive schemas as a potential mechanism through which irrational beliefs relate to psychological distress in athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 44, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.04.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M., Carrington, S., & Miller, A. (2019). Psychological distress across sport participation groups: The mediating effects of secondary irrational beliefs on the relationship between primary irrational beliefs and symptoms of anxiety, anger, and depression. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 13(1), 17–40. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2017-0014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. J., Kirkham, L., & Wood, A. G. (2018). Teeing up for success: The effects of rational and irrational self-talk on the putting performance of amateur golfers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 148–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. J., Miller, A., Youngs, H., Barber, N., Brick, N. E., Chadha, N. J., Chandler, C., Coyle, M., Didymus, F. F., Evans, A. L., Jones, K., McCann, B., Meijen, C., & Rossato, C. J. L. (2022). “I must do this!”: A latent profile analysis approach to understanding the role of irrational beliefs and motivation regulation in mental and physical health. Journal of Sports Sciences, 40(8), 934–949. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2022.2042124
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. J., Wood, A. G., Barker, J. B., & Chadha, N. (2020). Rational self-talk: A rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) perspective. In A. T. Latinjak & A. Hatzigeorgiadis (Eds.), Self-talk in sport (pp. 109–122). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429460623-8
   Google Scholar
• Vîslă, A., Flückiger, C., Grosse Holtforth, M., & David, D. (2016). Irrational beliefs and psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1159/000441231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, N. J. (2010). Identity in sport: A psychological and theological analysis. In J. Parry, M. Nesti, & N. J. Watson (Eds.), Theology, ethics and transcendence in sports (pp. 107–148). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.3138/jrpc.23.2.182
   Google Scholar
• Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology, 7E. Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Winer, E. S., Cervone, D., Bryant, J., McKinney, C., Liu, R. T., & Nadorff, M. R. (2016). Distinguishing mediational models and analyses in clinical psychology: Atemporal associations do not imply causation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(9), 947–955. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfson, S., & Neave, N. (2007). Coping under pressure: Cognitive strategies for maintaining confidence among soccer referees. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(2), 232–247.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, A. G., Turner, M. J., & Barker, J. B. (2019). Bolstering psychological health using rational emotive behaviour therapy. In G. Breslin & G. Leavey (Eds.), Mental health and well-being interventions in sport: A case study analysis (pp. 45–62). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315147703-4
   Google Scholar