Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion: Pathogenesis, Visual Prognosis, and Treatment Modalities

REFERENCES

• Klein R, Klein B E, Moss S E, Meuer S M. The epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion: The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2000; 98: 133–141
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mitchell P, Smith W, Chang A. Prevalence and associations of retinal vein occlusion in Australia. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996; 114: 1243–1247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• David R, Zangwill L, Badarna M, Yassur Y. Epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion and its association with glaucoma and increased intraocular pressure. Ophthalmologica. 1988; 197: 69–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh S S, Zimmerman B, Podhajsky P. Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol 1990; 117: 429–441
   Google Scholar
• Leber T. Die Krankheite der Netzhaut und des Sehnerven. Graefe-Saemisch. Handbuch der Gesamten Augenheikunde. Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig 1877; 531
   Google Scholar
• Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Chabanel A, Zourdani A, Lelong F, Samama M M. Prognostic factors for retinal vein occlusion: Prospective study of 175 cases. Ophthalmology. 1996; 103: 551–560
   Google Scholar
• Appiah A P, Trempe C L. Risk factors associated with branch vs. central retinal vein occlusion. Ann Ophthalmol 1989; 21: 153–157
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rath E Z, Frank R N, Shin D H, Kim C. Risk factors for retinal vein occlusions. A case-control study. Ophthalmology. 1992; 99: 509–514
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang G E, Freissler K. Clinical and fluorescein angiography findings in patients with retinal vein occlusion. A unicenter study of 211 patients. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1992; 201: 234–239
   Google Scholar
• Orth D H, Patz A. Retinal branch vein occlusion. Surv Ophthalmol 1978; 22: 357–380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koyanagi Y. The role of arteriovenous crossing for occuring of retinal branch vein occlusion. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1928; 81: 219–231
   Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Sastry S M, Sperduto R D, Chew E Y, Remaley N A. Arteriovenous crossing patterns in branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 423–428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duker J S, Brown G C. Anterior location of the crossing artery in branch retinal vein obstruction. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989; 107: 998–1000
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jefferies P, Clemett R, Day T. An anatomical study of retinal arteriovenous crossings and their role in the pathogenesis of retinal branch vein occlusions. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1993; 21: 213–217
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seitz R. The Retinal Vessels: Comparative Ophthalmoscopic and Histologic Studies on Healthy and Diseased Eyes. CV Mosby, St. Louis, MO 1964; 28
   Google Scholar
• Frangieh G T, Green W R, Barraquer-Somers E, Finkelstein D. Histopathologic study of branch retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1982; 100: 1132–1140
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christoffersen N L, Larsen M. Pathophysiology and hemodynamic of branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106: 2054–2062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope G E, Lowe G D, McArdle B M, Douglas J T, Forbes C D, Prentice C M, Foulds W S. Abnormal blood viscosity and haemostasis in long-standing retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983; 67: 137–142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGrath M A, Wechsler F, Hunyor A B, Penny R. Systemic factors contributory to retinal vein occlusion. Arch Intern Med. 1978; 138: 216–220
   Google Scholar
• Chen H C, Wiek J, Gupta A, Luckie A, Kohner E M. Effect of isovolaemic haemodilution on visual outcome in branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998; 82: 162–167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen M CH, de Heijer M, Cruysberg J RM, Wollersheim H, Bredie S JH. Retinal vein occlusion: A form of venous thrombosis or a complication of atherosclerosis?. Thromb Haemost. 2005; 93: 1021–1026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clouse L H, Comp P C. The regulation of hemostasis: The protein C system. N Eng J Med 1986; 314: 1298–1304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tekeli O, Gürsel E, Buyurgan H. Protein C, protein S and antithrombin III deficiencies in retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthlamol Scand. 1999; 77: 628–630
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bombeli T, Basic A, Fehr J. Prevalence of hereditary thrombophilia in patients with thrombosis in different venous systems. Am J Hematol. 2002; 70: 126–132
   Google Scholar
• Glueck C J, Wang P, Bell H, Rangaraj V, Goldenberg N. Associations of thrombophilia, hypofibrinolysis, and retinal vein occlusion. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2005; 11: 375–389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcucci R, Bertini L, Giusti B, Brunelli T, Fedi S, Cellai A P, Poli D, Pepe G, Abbate R, Prisco D. Thrombophilic risk factors in patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Thromb Haemost. 2001; 86: 772–776
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlbäck B, Carlsson M, Svensson P J. Familiar thrombophilia due to a previously unrecognized mechanism characterized by poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: Predilection of a cofactor to activated protein C. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 1004–1008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlbäck B. Physiological anticoagulation: Resistance to activated protein C and venous thromboembolism. J Clin Invest. 1994; 94: 923–927
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bertina R M, Koeleman B PC, Koster T, Rosendaal F R, Dirven R J, de Ronde H, van der Velden P A, Reitsma P H. Mutation in blood coagulation factor V associated with resistance to activated protein C. Nature. 1994; 369: 64–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiner K, Peetz D, Winkgen A, Prellwitz W, Pfeiffer N, Hafner G. Genetic thrombophilia in patients with retinal vascular occlusion. Int Ophthalmol 1999; 23: 155–160
   Google Scholar
• Larsson J, Sellman A, Bauer B. Activated protein C resistance in patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997; 81: 832–834
   Google Scholar
• Larsson J, Hillarp A, Olafsdottir E, Bauer B. Activated protein C resistance and anticoagulant proteins in young adults with central retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1999; 77: 634–637
   Google Scholar
• Kuhli C, Hattenbach L O, Scharrer I, Koch F, Ohrloff Ch. High prevalence of resistance to APC in young patients with retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2002; 240: 163–168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arssene S, Delahousse B, Regina S, Le Lez M L, Pisella P J, Gruel Y. Increased prevalence of factor V Leiden in patients with retinal vein occlusion and under 60 years of age. Thromb Haemost. 2005; 94: 101–106
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb J L, Blice J P, Mestichelli B, Konkle B A, Benson W E. Activated protein C resistance, factor V Leiden, and central retinal vein occlusion in young adults. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998; 116: 577–579
   Google Scholar
• Demirci F YK, Güney D B, Akarcay K, Kir N, Özbek U, Sirma S, Ünaltuna N, Öngör E. Prevalence of factor V Leiden in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1999; 77: 631–633
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ates O. The deficiencies of protein C, protein S and antithrombin III in patients with retinal vein occlusion: A Turkish sample. Clin Lab Haematol. 2006; 28: 391–392
   Google Scholar
• Adamzuk Y P, Iglesias Varela M L, Martinuzzo M E, Cerrato G S, Forastiero R R. Central retinal vein occlusion and thrombophilia risk factors. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2002; 13: 623–626
   Google Scholar
• Larsson J, Hillarp A. The prothrombin gene G20210A mutation and the platelet glycoprotein IIIa polymorphism PlA2 in patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Thromb Res. 1999; 96: 323–327
   Google Scholar
• Kalayci D, Gurgey A, Guven D, Parlak H, Hasiripi H. Factor V Leiden and prothrombin 20210 A mutations in patients with central and branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1999; 77: 622–624
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wahl D G, Guillemin F, de Maistre E, Perret-Guillaume C, Lecompte T, Thibaut G. Meta-analysis of the risk of venous thrombosis in individuals with antiphospholipid antibodies without underlying autoimmune disease or previous thrombosis. Lupus. 1998; 7: 15–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke R, Daly L, Robinson K, Naughten E, Cahalane S, Fowler B, Graham I. Hyperhomocysteinemia: An independent risk factor for vascular disease. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1149–1155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch G N, Loscalzo J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1998; 338: 1142–1150
   Google Scholar
• Cahill M T, Stinnett S S, Fekrat S. Meta-analysis of plasma homocysteine, serum folate, serum vitamin B12, and thermolabile MTHFR genotype as risk factors for retinal vascular occlusive disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003; 136: 1136–1150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein A, Goldstein M, Winder A, Lazar M, Eldor A. Retinal vein occlusion associated with methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase mutation. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106: 1817–1820
   Google Scholar
• Cahill M, Karabatzaki M, Donoghue C, Meleady R, Mynett-Johnson L A, Mooney D, Graham I M, Whitehead A S, Shields D C. Thermolabile MTHFR genotype and retinal vascular occlusive disease. Br J Ophthalmol 2001; 85: 88–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnarsson A, Stefansson E. Laser treatment and the mechanism of edema reduction in branch retinal vein occlusion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000; 41: 877–879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefansson E. The therapeutic effects of retinal laser treatment and vitrectomy. A theory based on oxygen and vascular physiology. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001; 79: 435–440
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silva R M, Faria de Abreu J R, Cunha-Vaz J G. Blood-retina barrier in acute retinal branch vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1995; 233: 721–726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saika S, Tanaka T, Miyamoto T, Ohnishi Y. Surgical posterior vitreous detachment combined with gas/air tamponade for treating macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion: Retinal tomography and visual outcome. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001; 239: 729–732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aiello L P, Avery R L, Arrigg P G, Keyt B A, Jampel H D, Shah S T, Pasquale L R, Thieme H, Iwamoto M A, Park J E. Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N Engl J Med. 1994; 331: 1480–1487
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noma H, Minamoto A, Funatsu H, Tsukamoto H, Nakano K, Yamashita H, Mishima H K. Intravitreal levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 are correlated with macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006; 244: 309–315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wetzig P C. The treatment of acute branch vein occlusion by photocoagulation. Am J Ophthalmol. 1979; 87: 65–73
   Google Scholar
• Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1986; 104: 34–41
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsaloumas M D, Kirwan J, Vinall H, O'Leary M B, Prior P, Kritzinger E E, Dodson P M. Nine year follow-up study of morbidity and mortality in retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2000; 14: 821–827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutman F A, Zegarra H, Zakov Z N. The natural course of temporal retinal vein occlusion. Trans Am Acad Opthalmol Otolaryngol. 1974; 78: 178–192
   Google Scholar
• Hayreh S S, Rojas P, Podhajsky P, Montague P, Woolson R F. Ocular neovascularization with retinal occlusion: III. Incidence of neovascularization with retinal vascular occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1983; 90: 488–506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magargal L E, Sanborn G E, Kimmel A S, Annesley W H. Temporal branch retinal vein obstruction: A review. Ophthal Surg. 1986; 17: 240–246
   Google Scholar
• Michels R G, Gass J DM. Natural course of temporal retinal branch occlusion. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1974; 78: 166–177
   Google Scholar
• Gutman F A. Macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion: Prognosis and management. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1977; 83: 488–493
   Google Scholar
• Finkelstein D. Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1986; 93: 975–977
   Google Scholar
• Shilling J S, Jones C A. Retinal branch vein occlusion: A study of argon laser photocoagulation in the treatment of macular oedema. Br J Ophthalmol. 1984; 68: 196–198
   Google Scholar
• Finkelstein D. Ischemic macular edema: Recognition and favorable natural history in branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 1427–1434
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jalkh A E, Avila P M, Zakka K A, Trempe C L, Schepens C S. Chronic macular edema in retinal branch vein occlusion: Role of laser photocoagulation. Annals Ophthalmol. 1984; 16: 526–533
   Google Scholar
• Subramanian M L, Heier J S, Esrick E, Devaiah A K, Topping T M, Frederick A R, Morley M G. Preoperative visual acuity as a prognostic indicator for laser treatment of macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2006; 37: 462–467
   Google Scholar
• Lang G E, Händel A. Results of laser coagulation of retinal branch vein occlusion. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1993; 203: 180–188
   Google Scholar
• Weiss J N, Bynoe L A. Injection of tissue plasminogen activator into a branch retinal vein in eyes with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 108; 2001: 2249–2257
   Google Scholar
• Houtsmuller A J, Vermeulen J A, Klompe M, Zahn K J, Henkes H E, Baarsma G S, Tijssen J. The influence of ticlopidine on the natural course of retinal vein occlusion. Agents Actions Suppl. 1984; 15: 219–229
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Chabanel A, et al. A randomized, double-masked study on the treatment of retinal vein occlusion with troxerutin. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994; 118: 421–429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulse J D, Yacobi A. Hetastarch: An overview of the colloid and its metabolism. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1983; 17: 334–341
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waters L M, Christensen M A, Sato R M. Hetastarch: An alternative colloid in burn shock management. J Burn Care Rehab. 1989; 1: 11–16
   Google Scholar
• Poupard P, Eledjam J J, Dupeyron G, et al. Role of acute normovolemic hemodilution in treating retinal venous occlusions. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim. 1986; 5: 229–233
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen L L, Wiek J, Arntz R. Randomized study of the effect of isovolemic hemodilution in retinal branch vein occlusion. Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1988; 85: 514–516
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janvrin S B, Davies G, Greenhalgh R M. Postoperative deep vein thrombosis, an association with haemodilution. Br J Surg. 1980; 67: 690–693
   Google Scholar
• Osterloh M D, Charles S. Surgical decompression of branch retinal vein occlusions. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988; 106: 1469–1471
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garcia-Arumi J, Martinez-Castillo V, Boixadera A, Blasco H, Corcostegui B. Management of macular oedema in branch retinal vein occlusion with sheathotomy and recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Retina. 2004; 24: 530–540
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto S, Saito W, Yagi F, Takeuchi S, Sato E, Mizunoya S. Vitrectomy with or without arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004; 138: 907–914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charbonnel J, Glacet-Bernard A, Korobelnik J, et al. Management of branch retinal vein occlusion with vitrectomy and arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy, the possible role of surgical posterior vitreous detachment. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004; 242: 223–228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sohn J H, Song S J. Arteriovenous sheathotomy for persistent macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2006; 20: 210–214
   Google Scholar
• Kumagai K, Furukawa M, Ogino N, Uemura A, Larson E. Long-term outcomes of vitrectomy with or without arteriovenous sheathotomy in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007; 27: 49–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avci R, Inan U, Kaderli B. Evaluation of arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy for decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye 2008; 22: 120–127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horio N, Horiguchi M. Effect of arteriovenous sheathotomy on retinal blood flow and macular edema in patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005; 139: 739–740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakhanpal R R, Javaheri M, Ruiz-Garcia H, De Juan E, Jr, Humayun M S. Transvitreal limited arteriovenous-crossing manipulation without vitrectomy for complicated branch retinal vein occlusion using 25-gauge instrumentation. Retina. 2005; 25: 272–280
   Google Scholar
• Mester U, Dillinger P. Vitrectomy with arteriovenous decompression and internal limiting membrane dissection in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2002; 22: 740–746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opremcak E M, Bruce R A. Surgical decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion via arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy: A prospective review of 15 cases. Retina. 1999; 19: 1–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asensio Sanchez V M, Rodriguez Bravo I, Botella Oltra G. Adventitial sheathotomy in branch retinal vein occlusion with nonischemic macular edema. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol. 2004; 79: 347–352
   Google Scholar
• Lerche R C, Richard G. Arteriovenous sheathotomy in venous thrombosis. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 2004; 221: 479–484
   Google Scholar
• Mason J, Feist R, White M, Jr, Swanner J, McGwin G, Jr, Emond T. Sheathotomy to decompress branch retinal vein occlusion: A matched control study. Ophthalmology. 2004; 111: 540–545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cahill M T, Kaiser P K, Sears J E, et al. The effect of arteriovenous sheathotomy on cystoid macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003; 87: 1329–1332
   Google Scholar
• Becquet F, Le Rouic J F, Zanlonghi X, Peronnet P, Hermouet-Leclair E, Pousset-Decre C, Ducournau D. Efficiency of surgical treatment for chronic macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. J Fr Ophtalmol 2003; 26: 570–576
   Google Scholar
• Martinez-Soroa I, Ruiz Miguel M, Ostolaza J I, Perez-Torres S, Mendicute J. Surgical arteriovenous decompression (sheathotomy) in branch retinal vein occlusion: Retrospective study. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol. 2003; 78: 603–608
   Google Scholar
• Le Rouic J F, Bejjani R A, Rumen F, Caudron C, Bettembourg O, Renard G, Chauvaud D. Adventitial sheathotomy for decompression of recent onset branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001; 239: 747–751
   Google Scholar
• Dotrelova D, Dubska Z, Kuthan P, Stepankova J. Initial experience with surgical decompression of the vein in branch retinal vein occlusion. Cesk Slov Oftalmol. 2001; 57: 359–366
   Google Scholar
• Shah G K, Sharma S, Fineman M S. Arteriovenous adventitial sheathotomy for the treatment of macular oedema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000; 129: 104–106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crafoord S, Karlsson N, la Cour M. Sheathotomy in complicated cases of branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2007, Aug 17; Epub ahead of print
   Google Scholar
• Han D P, Bennett S R, Williams D F, Dev S. Arteriovenous crossing dissection without separation of the retina vessels for treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2003; 23: 145–151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandelcorn M S, Nrusimhadevara R K. Internal limiting membrane peeling for decompression of macular edema in retinal vein occlusion: A report of 14 cases. Retina. 2004; 24: 348–355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandelcorn M S, Mandelcorn E, Guan K, Adatia F A. Surgical macular decompression for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol. 2007; 42: 116–122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avitabile T, Longo A, Reibaldi A. Intravitreal triamcinolone compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for the treatment of cystoid macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005; 140: 695–702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh J Y, Seo J H, Ahn J K, Heo J W, Chung H. Early versus late intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2007; 21: 18–20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ozkiris A, Evereklioglu C, Erkilic K, Dogan H. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of persistent macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye. 2006; 20: 13–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas J B, Akkoyun I, Kamppeter B, Kreissig I, Degenring R F. Branch retinal vein occlusion treated by intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide. Eye 2005; 19: 65–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cekic O, Chang S, Tseng J J, Barile G R, Del Priore L V, Weissman H, Schiff W M, Ober M D. Intravitreal triamcinolone injection for treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2005; 25: 851–855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee H, Shah G K. Intravitreal triamcinolone as primary treatment of cystoid macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2005; 25: 551–555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozkiris A, Evereklioglu C, Erkiliç K, Ilhan O. The efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide on macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol 2005; 15: 96–101
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yepremyan M, Wertz F D, Tivnan T, Eversman L, Marx J L. Early treatment of cystoid macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion with intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2005; 36: 30–36
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheng K C, Wu W C. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for patients with macular edema due to branch retinal vein occlusion. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2006; 22: 321–330
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen S D, Lochhead J, Patel C K, Frith P. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for ischaemic macular oedema caused by branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004; 88: 154–155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen S D, Sundaram V, Lochhead J, Patel C K. Intravitreal triamcinolone for the treatment of ischemic macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006; 141: 876–883
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsujikawa A, Fujihara M, Iwawaki T, Yamamoto K, Kurimoto Y. Triamcinolone acetonide with vitrectomy for treatment of macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005; 25: 861–867
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karacorlu M, Ozdemir H, Karacorlu S A. Resolution of serous macular detachment after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide treatment of patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005; 25: 856–860
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krepler K, Ergun E, Sacu S, Richter-Muksch S, Wagner J, Stur M, Wedrich A. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in patients with macular oedema due to branch retinal vein occlusion: A pilot study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005; 83: 600–604
   Google Scholar
• Degenring R F, Kamppeter B, Kreissig I, Jonas J B. Morphological and functional changes after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2003; 81: 399–401
   Google Scholar
• Wakabayashi T, Okada A A, Morimura Y, Kojima E, Asano Y, Hirakata A, Hida T. Trans-tenon retrobulbar triamcinolone infusion for chronic macular edema in central and branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2004; 24: 964–967
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salinas-Alamán A, García-Layana A, Sádaba-Echarri L M, Belzunce-Manterola A. Branch retinal vein occlusion treated by intravitreal triamcinolone. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol 2005; 80: 463–465
   Google Scholar
• Hirano Y, Sakurai E, Yoshida M, Ogura Y. Comparative study on efficacy of a combination therapy of triamcinolone acetonide administration with and without vitrectomy for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Res 2007; 39: 207–212
   Google Scholar
• Kuppermann B D, Blumenkranz M S, Haller J A, Williams G A, Weinberg D V, Chou C, Whitcup S M. Dexamethasone D DSPhase I I Study Group. Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol 2007; 125: 309–317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas J B, Degenring R F, Kreissig I, Akkoyun I, Kamppeter B A. Intraocular pressure elevation after intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection. Ophthalmology. 2005; 112: 593–598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas J B, Degenring R F, Kreissig I, Akkoyun I. Safety of intravitreal high-dose reinjections of triamcinolone acetonide. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004; 138: 1054–1055
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott I U, Flynn H W, Jr. Reducing the risk of endophthalmitis following intravitreal injections. Retina 2007; 27: 10–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhavsar A R, Ip M S, Glassman A R. DRCRnet and the SCORE Study Groups. The risk of endophthalmitis following intravitreal triamcinolone injection in the DRCRnet and SCORE clinical trials. Am J Ophthalmol 2007; 144: 454–456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawaji T, Hirata A, Awai N, Takano A, Inomata Y, Fukushima M, Tanihara H. Trans-tenon retrobulbar triamcinolone injection for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion remaining after vitrectomy. Am J Ophthalmol 2005; 140: 540–542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayashi K, Hayashi H. Intravitreal versus retrobulbar injections of triamcinolone for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005; 139: 972–982
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld P J, Fung A E, Puliafito C A. Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for macular edema from central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2005; 36: 336–339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iturralde D, Spaide R F, Meyerle C B, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) treatment of macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion: A short-term study. Retina 2006; 26: 279–284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabena M D, Pieramici D J, Castellarin A A, Nasir M A, Avery R L. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007; 27: 419–425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spandau U, Wickenhauser A, Rensch F, Jonas J. Intravitreal bevacizumab for branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2007; 85: 118–119
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsumoto Y, Freund K B, Peiretti E, Cooney M J, Ferrara D C, Yannuzzi L A. Rebound macular edema following bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for retinal venous occlusive disease. Retina. 2007; 27: 426–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campochiaro P A, Shah S M, Hafiz G, Quinlan E, Zimmer-Galler I, Nguyen Q D, Do D V, Ying H, Sung J U. Ranibizumab for Macular Edema Due to Retinal Vein Occlusions. ARVO May 7, 2007
   Google Scholar
• Jaissle G B, Ziemssen F, Petermeier K, Szurman P, Ladewig M, Gelisken F, Volker M, Holz F G, Bartz-Schmidt K U. Bevacizumab for treatment of macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologe 2006; 103: 471–475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmadieh H, Moradian S, Malihi M. Rapid regression of extensive retinovitreal neovascularization secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion after a single intravitreal injection of bevacizumab. Int Ophthalmol 2005; 26: 191–193
   Google Scholar
• Costa R A, Jorge R, Calucci D, Melo L A, Jr, Cardillo J A, Scott I U. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusions: IBeVO study. Retina. 2007; 27: 141–119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai S A, Shetty R, Vijayan P B, Venkatasubramaniam G, Yadav N K, Shetty B K, Babu R B, Narayana K M. Clinical, anatomic, and electrophysiologic evaluation following intravitreal bevacizumab for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2007; 143: 601–606
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaal K B, Höh A E, Scheuerle A, Schütt F, Dithmar S. Bevacizumab for the treatment of macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologe 2007; 104: 285–289
   Google Scholar
• Stahl A, Agostini H, Hansen L L, Feltgen N. Bevacizumab in retinal vein occlusion results of a prospective case series. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2007; 245: 1429–1436
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iliev M E, Domig D, Wolf-Schnurrbursch U, Wolf S, Sarra G M. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of neovascular glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006; 142: 1054–1056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batioglu F, Astam N, Ozmert E. Rapid improvement of retinal and iris neovascularization after a single intravitreal bevacizumab injection in a patient with central retinal vein occlusion and neovascular glaucoma. Int Ophthalmol 2007, July 4; Epub ahead of print
   Google Scholar
• Yazdani S, Hendi K, Pakravan M. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) injection for neovascular glaucoma. J Glaucoma 2007; 16: 437–439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahook M Y, Schuman J S, Noecker R J. Intravitreal bevacizumab in a patient with neovascular glaucoma. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2006; 37: 144–146
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grisanti S, Biester S, Peters S, Tatar O, Ziemssen F, Bartz-Schmidt K U. Tuebingen Bevacizumab Study Group. Intracameral bevacizumab for iris rubeosis. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 142: 158–160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 1984; 98: 271–282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parodi M B, Saviano S, Bergamini L, Ravalico G. Grid laser treatment of macular edema in macular branch retinal vein occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1999; 97: 427–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parodi M B, Saviano S, Ravalico G. Grid laser treatment in macular branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1999; 237: 1024–1027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremer I, Hartman B, Siegal R, Ben-Sira I. Static and kinetic perimetry results of krypton red laser treatment for macular edema complicating branch vein occlusion. Ann Ophthalmol 1990; 22: 193–197
   Google Scholar
• Hayreh S S, Rubenstein L, Podhajsky P. Argon laser scatter photocoagulation in treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion. A prospective clinical trial. Ophthalmologica 1993; 206: 1–14
   Google Scholar
• L'Esperance F A. Ocular Photocoagulation. A Stereoscopic Atlas. CV Mosby, St. Louis, MO 1975; 215–222
   Google Scholar
• Rehak J. Branch retinal vein occlusion. Part 2. Early treatment with argon laser. New approach. New Trends Ophtalmol. 1997; 12: 77–82
   Google Scholar
• Rehak J. Retinal vein occlusion. III. Arteriolar constriction. Cesk Oftalmol. 1993; 49: 151–154
   Google Scholar
• Rehak J, Vymazal M. Arteriolar constriction in the treatment of branch retinal vein occlusion-Initial experience. Cesk Oftalmol 1993; 49: 155–159
   Google Scholar
• Erdol H, Akyol N. Arterial crimping in branch retinal vein occlusion with macular edema. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000; 78: 456–459
   Google Scholar