References
- Luo X, Shen Y, Jiang M, Lou X, Shen Y. Ocular blood flow autoregulation mechanisms and methods. J Ophthalmol. 2015;2015:1–7.
- Flammer J, Konieczka K, Bruno RM, Virdis A, Flammer AJ, Taddei S. The eye and the heart. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(17):1270–78. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht023.
- Guo S, Yin S, Tse G, Li G, Su L, Liu T. Association between caliber of retinal vessels and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2020;22(4):16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11883-020-0834-2.
- Forster RB, Garcia ES, Sluiman AJ, Grecian SM, McLachlan S, MacGillivray TJ, Strachan MWJ, Price JF, on behalf of the Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study (ET2DS) investigators. Retinal venular tortuosity and fractal dimension predict incident retinopathy in adults with type 2 diabetes: the Edinburgh type 2 diabetes study. Diabetologia. 2021;64(5):1103–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-021-05388-5.
- Guo VY, Chan JCN, Chung H, Ozaki R, So W, Luk A, Lam A, Lee J, Zee BC-Y. Retinal information is independently associated with cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):19053. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19053.
- García-Ortiz L, Gómez-Marcos MA, Recio-Rodríguez JI, Maderuelo-Fernández JA, Chamoso-Santos P, Rodríguez-González S, De Paz-santana JF, Merchan-Cifuentes MA, Corchado-Rodríguez JM. Validation of the automatic image analyser to assess retinal vessel calibre (ALTAIR): a prospective study protocol. Br Med J Open. 2014;4:e006144.
- McGeechan K, Liew G, Macaskill P, Irwig L, Klein R, Klein BEK, Wang JJ, Mitchell P, Vingerling JR, deJong TVMP, et al. Retinal vessel caliber and risk for coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151(6):404–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-6-200909150-00005.
- Tornow R-P, Odstrcilik J, Kolar R. Time-resolved quantitative inter-eye comparison of cardiac cycle-induced blood volume changes in the human retina. Biomed Opt Express. 2018;9(12):6237–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.9.006237.
- Knudtson MD, Klein BEK, Klein R, Wong TY, Hubbard LD, Lee KE, Meuer SM, Bulla CP. Variation associated with measurement of retinal vessel diameters at different points in the pulse cycle. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88(1):57–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.88.1.57.
- Phan K, Mitchell P, Liew G, Plant AJ, Wang SB, Thiagalingam A, Burlutsky G, Gopinath B. Associations between retinal arteriolar and venular calibre with the prevalence of impaired fasting glucose and diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE. 2018;13(5):e0189627. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189627.
- Blair NP, Wanek J, Felder AE, Joslin CE, Kresovich JK, Lim JI, Chau FY, Leiderman Y, Shahidi M. Retinal oximetry and vessel diameter measurements with a commercially available scanning laser ophthalmoscope in diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2017;58(12):5556–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.17-21934.
- Hao H, Sasongko MB, Wong TY, Azemin MZC, Aliahmad B, Hodgson L, Kawasaki R, Cheung CY, Wang JJ, Kumar DK. Does retinal vascular geometry vary with cardiac cycle? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53(9):5799–805. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.11-9326.
- Perrott RL, North RV, Drasdo N, Ahmed KA, Owens DR. The influence of plasma glucose upon pulsatile ocular blood flow in subjects with Type II diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 2001;44(6):700–05. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s001250051678.
- Wei -F-F, Zhang Z-Y, Petit T, Cauwenberghs N, Gu Y-M, Thijs L, Raaijmakers A, Jacobs L, Yang W-Y, Allegaert K, et al. Retinal microvascular diameter, a hypertension-related trait, in ECG-gated vs. non-gated images analyzed by IVAN and SIVA. Hypertens Res. 2016;39:886–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/hr.2016.81.
- Chen HC, Patel V, Wiek J, Rassam SM, Kohner EM. Vessel diameter changes during the cardiac cycle. Eye. 1994;8:97–103. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.1994.19.
- Wong TY, Knudtson MD, Klein R, Klein BEK, Meuer SM, Hubbard LD. Computer-assisted measurement of retinal vessel diameters in the Beaver Dam Eye Study: methodology, correlation between eyes, and effect of refractive errors. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(6):1183–90. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2003.09.039.
- Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Grading diabetic retinopathy from stereoscopic color fundus photographs—an extension of the modified airlie house classification: ETDRS report number 10. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(5 Suppl):786–806. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(13)38012-9.
- Klein R, Davis MD, Magli YL, Segal P, Klein BEK, Hubbard L. The Wisconsin age-related maculopathy grading system. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(7):1128–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(91)32186-9.
- Gibbs O Quantification of pulsatile changes in retinal vessel calibre to improve non-invasive cardiovascular risk evaluation [M.Phil thesis]. Sydney (NSW): University of Sydney; 2016.
- Pan J, Tompkins WJ. A real-time QRS detection algorithm. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1985;BME-32(3):230–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.1985.325532.
- Afonso VX. ECG QRS detection. In: Tompkins WJ, editor. Biomedical digital signal processing. New Jersey (USA): Prentice-Hall, Inc.; 2000. p. 735–65.
- Pakter HM, Fuchs SC, Maestri MK, Moreira LB, Dei Ricardi LM, Pamplona VF, Oliveira MM, Fuchs FD. Computer-assisted methods to evaluate retinal vascular caliber: what are they measuring? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(2):810–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.10-5876.
- Bek T, Jeppesen P, Kanters JK. Spontaneous high frequency diameter oscillations of larger retinal arterioles are reduced in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2013;54(1):636–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.12-11182.
- Kumar DK, Aliahmad B, Hao H, Che Azemin MZ, Kawasaki RA. Method for visualization of fine retinal vascular pulsation using nonmydriatic fundus camera synchronized with electrocardiogram. Int Sch Res Not Ophthalmol. 2013;2013:1–9.
- Cheung CY, Ikram MK, Klein R, Wong TY. The clinical implications of recent studies on the structure and function of the retinal microvasculature in diabetes. Diabetologia. 2015;58(5):871–85. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-015-3511-1.
- McGeechan K, Liew G, Macaskill P, Irwig L, Klein R, Sharrett AR, Klein BEK, Wang JJ, Chambless LE, Wong TY. Risk prediction of coronary heart disease based on retinal vascular caliber (from the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities [ARIC] Study). Am J Cardiol. 2008;102(1):58–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.02.094.
- Warner RL, De Castro A, Sawides L, Gast T, Sapoznik K, Luo T, Burns SA. Full-field flicker evoked changes in parafoveal retinal blood flow. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):16051. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73032-0.
- Riva CE, Schmetterer L. Microcirculation of the ocular fundus. In: Tejung R, editor. Comprehensive physiology. New Jersey (USA): Wiley; 2011. p. 236–64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.cp020416.
- Reshef DS Evaluation of generalized arteriolar narrowing expressed as central retinal artery/vein equivalents ratio (CRAVER) using ECG synchronized retinal photography [Ph.D thesis]. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins University; 1999.
- Moret F, Poloschek CM, Lagrèze WA, Bach M. Visualization of fundus vessel pulsation using principal component analysis. Multidiscip Ophthalmic Imaging. 2011;52:5457–64.
- Dumskyj MJ, Aldington SJ, Dore CJ, Kohner EM. The accurate assessment of changes in retinal vessel diameter using multiple frame electrocardiograph synchronised fundus photography. Curr Eye Res. 1996;15(6):625–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/02713689609008902.
- Zion IB, Harris A, Siesky B, Shulman S, McCranor L, Garzozi HJ. Pulsatile ocular blood flow: relationship with flow velocities in vessels supplying the retina and choroid. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(7):882–84. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2006.108340.
- Kappelgaard P, Hansen KB, Vilsbøll T, Knop FK, Larsen M. Electroretinography in healthy subjects in relation to systemic glucocorticoid intake. Doc Ophthalmol. 2012;124(1):49–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10633-011-9303-0.
- Savage HI, Hendrix JW, Peterson DC, Young H, Wilkinson CP. Differences in pulsatile ocular blood flow among three classifications of diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(12):4504–09. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.04-0077.
- Perrott RL, Drasdo N, Owens DR, North RV. Can pulsatile ocular blood flow distinguish between patients with and without diabetic retinopathy? Clin Exp Optom. 2007;90(6):445–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-0938.2007.00191.x.
- Mori F, Yokota H, Nagaoka T, Konno S, Kagokawa H, Hikichi T, Yoshida A. Pulsatile ocular blood flow is unaffected in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2003;47(6):621–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjo.2003.08.004.
- Geyer O, Neudorfer M, Snir T, Goldstein M, Rock T, Silver DM, Bartov E. Pulsatile ocular blood flow in diabetic retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1999;77(5):522–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0420.1999.770507.x.
- Antonopoulos AS, Siasos G, Oikonomou E, Gouliopoulos N, Konsola T, Tsigkou V, Moschos M, Tentolouris N, Kassi E, Paschou SA, et al. Arterial stiffness and microvascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Eur J Clin Invest. 2021;51(2):e13380. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/eci.13380.
- Lyle AN, Raaz U. Killing me un-softly: causes and mechanisms of arterial stiffness recent highlights of ATVB: early career committee contribution. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2017;37(2):e1–11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.116.308563.
- Lal A. The ECG-gated fundoscope in the investigation of retinal vessel calibre as a cardiovascular risk marker in type 2 diabetes mellitus [Ph.D thesis]. Sydney (NSW): University of Sydney; 2019. https://hdl.handle.net/2123/23526