References
- IDF. Diabetes atlas. 7th ed. Vancouver: International diabetes federation; Accessed 19 November 2016. http://www.diabetesatlas.org/.
- Drinkwater JJ, Davis WA, Davis TME. A systematic review of risk factors for cataract in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2019;35(1):e3073. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.3073.
- Xu X, He J, Xu X, Du X, Bai X, Zhang B, He X, Lu L, Zhu J, Zou H. Cataract was the principle cause of visual impairment and blindness in shanghai residents with type 2 diabetes. Acta Ophthalmol. 2016;94(3):e246–e247. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.12930.
- Obrosova IG, Chung SS, Kador PF. Diabetic cataracts: mechanisms and management. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2010;26(3):172–80. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.1075.
- Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE. Prevalence of cataracts in a population-based study of persons with diabetes mellitus. Ophthalmology. 1985;92(9):1191–96. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(85)33877-0.
- Glick D, Barth S, Macleod KF. Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms. J Pathol. 2010;221(1):3–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/path.2697.
- Morishita H, Mizushima N. Autophagy in the lens. Exp Eye Res. 2016;144:22–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2015.08.019.
- Costello MJ, Brennan LA, Basu S, Chauss D, Mohamed A, Gilliland KO, Johnsen S, Menko S, Kantorow M. Autophagy and mitophagy participate in ocular lens organelle degradation. Exp Eye Res. 2013;116:141–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.08.017.
- Brennan LA, Kantorow WL, Chauss D, McGreal R, He S, Mattucci L, Wei J, Riazuddin SA, Cvekl A, Hejtmancik JF, et al. Spatial expression patterns of autophagy genes in the eye lens and induction of autophagy in lens cells. Mol Vis. 2012;18:1773–86.
- Chen J, Ma Z, Jiao X, Fariss R, Kantorow WL, Kantorow M, Pras E, Frydman M, Pras E, Riazuddin S, et al. Mutations in fyco1 cause autosomal-recessive congenital cataracts. Am J Hum Genet. 2011;88(6):827–38. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.008.
- Morishita H, Eguchi S, Kimura H, Sasaki J, Sakamaki Y, Robinson ML, Sasaki T, Mizushima N. Deletion of autophagy-related 5 (atg5) and pik3c3 genes in the lens causes cataract independent of programmed organelle degradation. J Biol Chem. 2013;288(16):11436–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112.437103.
- Kim J, Kundu M, Viollet B, Guan KL. Ampk and mtor regulate autophagy through direct phosphorylation of ulk1. Nat Cell Biol. 2011;13:132–41.
- Egan DF, Shackelford DB, Mihaylova MM, Gelino S, Kohnz RA, Mair W, Vasquez DS, Joshi A, Gwinn DM, Taylor R, et al. Phosphorylation of ulk1 (hatg1) by amp-activated protein kinase connects energy sensing to mitophagy. Science. 2011;331(6016):456–61.
- Hardie DG. Amp-activated protein kinase as a drug target. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;47:185–210. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105304.
- Lee JW, Park S, Takahashi Y, Wang HG. The association of ampk with ulk1 regulates autophagy. PLoS One. 2010;5(11):e15394. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015394.
- Xie Z, Lau K, Eby B, Lozano P, He C, Pennington B, Li H, Rathi S, Dong Y, Tian R, et al. Improvement of cardiac functions by chronic metformin treatment is associated with enhanced cardiac autophagy in diabetic ove26 mice. Diabetes. 2011;60(6):1770–78. doi:https://doi.org/10.2337/db10-0351.
- Efeyan A, Comb WC, Sabatini DM. Nutrient-sensing mechanisms and pathways. Nature. 2015;517(7534):302–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14190.
- Ha J, Guan KL, Kim J. Ampk and autophagy in glucose/glycogen metabolism. Mol Aspects Med. 2015;46:46–62. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2015.08.002.
- Greer EL, Oskoui PR, Banko MR, Maniar JM, Gygi MP, Gygi SP, Brunet A. The energy sensor amp-activated protein kinase directly regulates the mammalian foxo3 transcription factor. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(41):30107–19. doi:https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M705325200.
- Rubinsztein DC, Codogno P, Levine B. Autophagy modulation as a potential therapeutic target for diverse diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2012;11(9):709–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd3802.
- Sanchez AM, Candau RB, Csibi A, Pagano AF, Raibon A, Bernardi H. The role of amp-activated protein kinase in the coordination of skeletal muscle turnover and energy homeostasis. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2012;303(5):C475–485. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00125.2012.
- Meng XH, Chen B, Zhang JP. Intracellular insulin and impaired autophagy in a zebrafish model and a cell model of type 2 diabetes. Int J Biol Sci. 2017;13(8):985–95. doi:https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.19249.
- Zhang W, Li X, Wang S, Chen Y, Liu H. Regulation of tfeb activity and its potential as a therapeutic target against kidney diseases. Cell Death Discov. 2020;6:32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41420-020-0265-4.
- Emery JM, Little JH. Phacoemulsification and aspiration of cataracts: surgical techniques, complications, and results (Mosby). 1979.
- Zhang L, Cheng R, Huang Y. Mir-30a inhibits becn1-mediated autophagy in diabetic cataract. Oncotarget. 2017;8(44):77360–68. doi:https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.20483.
- Li J, Ye W, Xu W, Chang T, Zhang L, Ma J, Pei R, He M, Zhou J. Activation of autophagy inhibits epithelial to mesenchymal transition process of human lens epithelial cells induced by high glucose conditions. Cell Signal. 2020;75:109768.
- Zhou W, Xu J, Wang C, Shi D, Yan Q. Mir-23b-3p regulates apoptosis and autophagy via suppressing sirt1 in lens epithelial cells. J Cell Biochem. 2019;120(12):19635–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.29270.
- Codogno P, Mehrpour M, Proikas-Cezanne T. Canonical and non-canonical autophagy: variations on a common theme of self-eating? Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2011;13(1):7–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm3249.
- Noda NN, Inagaki F. Mechanisms of autophagy. Annu Rev Biophys. 2015;44:101–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biophys-060414-034248.
- Frost LS, Mitchell CH, Boesze-Battaglia K. Autophagy in the eye: implications for ocular cell health. Exp Eye Res. 2014;124:56–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2014.04.010.
- Egan DF, Shackelford DB, Mihaylova MM, Gelino S, Kohnz RA, Mair W, Vasquez DS, Joshi A, Gwinn DM, Taylor R, et al. Phosphorylation of ulk1 (hatg1) by amp-activated protein kinase connects energy sensing to mitophagy. Science. 2011;331(6016):456–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1196371.
- Kim J, Kundu M, Viollet B, Guan K-L. Ampk and mtor regulate autophagy through direct phosphorylation of ulk1. Nat Cell Biol. 2011;13(2):132–41. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb2152.
- Mammucari C, Milan G, Romanello V, Masiero E, Rudolf R, Del Piccolo P, Burden SJ, Di Lisi R, Sandri C, Zhao J, et al. Foxo3 controls autophagy in skeletal muscle in vivo. Cell Metab. 2007;6(6):458–71.
- Huang J, Manning BD. A complex interplay between akt, tsc2 and the two mtor complexes. Biochem Soc Trans. 2009;37(Pt 1):217–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1042/BST0370217.
- Zhao Y, Hu X, Liu Y, Dong S, Wen Z, He W, Zhang S, Huang Q, Shi M. Ros signaling under metabolic stress: cross-talk between ampk and akt pathway. Mol Cancer. 2017;16(1):79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12943-017-0648-1.
- Towns R, Kabeya Y, Yoshimori T, Guo C, Shangguan Y, Hong S, Kaplan M, Klionsky DJ, Wiley JW. Sera from patients with type 2 diabetes and neuropathy induce autophagy and colocalization with mitochondria in sy5y cells. Autophagy. 2005;1(3):163–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.4161/auto.1.3.2068.
- Rosa MD, Distefano G, Gagliano C, Rusciano D, Malaguarnera L. Autophagy in diabetic retinopathy. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):810–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X14666160321122900.
- Ding Y, Choi ME. Autophagy in diabetic nephropathy. J Endocrinol. 2015;224(1):R15–R30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1530/JOE-14-0437.
- Yang X, Pan X, Zhao X, Luo J, Xu M, Bai D, Hu Y, Liu X, Yu Q, Gao D. Autophagy and age-related eye diseases. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019:5763658. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5763658.
- Bjørkøy G, Lamark T, Brech A, Outzen H, Perander M, Overvatn A, Stenmark H. Johansen T. P62/sqstm1 forms protein aggregates degraded by autophagy and has a protective effect on huntingtin-induced cell death. J Cell Biol. 2005;171(4):603–14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.200507002.
- Li D, Liu GQ, Lu PR. High glucose: activating autophagy and affecting the biological behavior of human lens epithelial cells. Int J Ophthalmol. 2019;12(7):1061–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.18240/ijo.2019.07.02.
- Li J, Ye W, Xu W, Chang T, Zhang L, Ma J, Pei R, He M, Zhou J. Activation of autophagy inhibits epithelial to mesenchymal transition process of human lens epithelial cells induced by high glucose conditions. Cell Signal. 2020;75:109768. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109768.
- Liu X, Zhao X, Cheng R, Huang Y. Autophagy attenuates high glucose-induced oxidative injury to lens epithelial cells. Biosci Rep. 2020;40(4 BSR20193006).
- Steinberg GR, Kemp BE. Ampk in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2009;89(3):1025–78. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00011.2008.
- Janku F, McConkey DJ, Hong DS, Kurzrock R. Autophagy as a target for anticancer therapy. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2011;8(9):528–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrclinonc.2011.71.
- Wang B, Zhong Y, Li Q, Cui L, Huang G. Autophagy of macrophages is regulated by pi3k/akt/mtor signalling in the development of diabetic encephalopathy. Aging (Albany NY). 2018;10(10):2772–82. doi:https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.101586.
- Li X-Y, Wang -S-S, Han Z, Han F, Chang Y-P, Yang Y, Xue M, Sun B, Chen L-M. Triptolide restores autophagy to alleviate diabetic renal fibrosis through the mir-141-3p/pten/akt/mtor pathway. Mol Ther Nucleic Acids. 2017;9:48–56. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtn.2017.08.011.
- Xu J, Deng Y, Wang Y, Sun X, Chen S, Fu G. Spag5-as1 inhibited autophagy and aggravated apoptosis of podocytes via spag5/akt/mtor pathway. Cell Prolif. 2020;53(2):e12738. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/cpr.12738.
- Mammucari C, Milan G, Romanello V, Masiero E, Rudolf R, Del Piccolo P, Burden SJ, Di Lisi R, Sandri C, Zhao J, et al. Foxo3 controls autophagy in skeletal muscle in vivo. Cell Metab. 2007;6(6):458–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2007.11.001.
- Zhao E, Czaja MJ, Groszmann RJ, Iwakiri Y, Taddei TH. Transcription factor eb: a central regulator of both the autophagosome and lysosome. Hepatology. 2012;55(5):1632–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.25619.
- Madhavi YV, Gaikwad N, Yerra VG, Kalvala AK, Nanduri S, Kumar A. Targeting ampk in diabetes and diabetic complications: energy homeostasis, autophagy and mitochondrial health. Curr Med Chem. 2019;26(27):5207–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867325666180406120051.
- Winder WW. Amp-activated protein kinase: possible target for treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2000;2(3):441–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/15209150050194305.
- Guigas B, Sakamoto K, Taleux N, Reyna SM, Musi N, Viollet B, Hue L. Beyond aica riboside: in search of new specific amp-activated protein kinase activators. IUBMB Life. 2009;61(1):18–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/iub.135.
- Li -Y-Y, Yu L-F, Zhang L-N, Qiu B-Y, Su M-B, Wu F, Chen D-K, Pang T, Gu M, Zhang W, et al. Novel small-molecule ampk activator orally exerts beneficial effects on diabetic db/db mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2013;273(2):325–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2013.09.006.
- Ducommun S, Ford RJ, Bultot L, Deak M, Bertrand L, Kemp BE, Steinberg GR, Sakamoto K. Enhanced activation of cellular ampk by dual-small molecule treatment: aicar and a769662. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2014;306(6):E688–E696. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00672.2013.
- Jung HS, Chung KW, Won Kim J, Kim J, Komatsu M, Tanaka K, Nguyen YH, Kang TM, Yoon KH, Kim JW, et al. Loss of autophagy diminishes pancreatic beta cell mass and function with resultant hyperglycemia. Cell Metab. 2008;8(4):318–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2008.08.013.
- Yao J, Tao ZF, Li CP, Li XM, Cao GF, Jiang Q, Yan B. Regulation of autophagy by high glucose in human retinal pigment epithelium. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2014;33(1):107–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000356654.
- Lee J, Giordano S, Zhang J. Autophagy, mitochondria and oxidative stress: cross-talk and redox signalling. Biochem J. 2012;441(2):523–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1042/BJ20111451.
- Kawakami T, Gomez IG, Ren S, Hudkins K, Roach A, Alpers CE, Shankland SJ, D’Agati VD, Duffield JS. Deficient autophagy results in mitochondrial dysfunction and fsgs. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;26(5):1040–52. doi:https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2013111202.