FEDERAL AND PROVINCIAL LANGUAGE POLICY IN ONTARIO AND THE FUTURE OF THE FRANCO-ONTARIANS

NOTES

• In 1976, of the approximately 900,000 Canadians of French mother tongue (15.3% of the total number of 5.9 million) outside Québec, 484,000 lived in Ontario, accounting for 5.6% of the provincial population.—Canada. The Task Force on Canadian Unity, Report, vol. 2, A Time to Speak: The Views of the Public (Ottawa: Minister of Supplies and Services Canada, March, 1979), p. 39. Current federal language policy is based in part on the conclusion that the disappearance of the French-speaking minorities outside Québec would render impossible the extension of government services in French outside Québec and lessen the identity of Francophone Quebeckers with Canada as a whole.
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• Much of the information which follows concerning language legislation in the Upper Canadian, Canadian, and Ontario governments prior to 1967 is drawn from Claude-Armand Sheppard's The Law of Languages in Canada, study #10 of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971).
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• Between 1760 and 1791, no specific legal provision was made concerning language use in government. Throughout the period, French continued to be used in the government of Canada.—Sheppard, op. cit., p. 10. The debates and records of the Legislative Council created by the Quebec Act were kept in both English and French, and ordinances were passed in both.—Canada. Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Report, vol. 1 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, Oct. 8, 1967), p. 144. The Canada Act of 1791 (31 Geo. III, c. 31) extended to Upper Canada the British statute making English the only legal language for court proceedings in English courts. The Act guaranteed the French Canadians' right to vote and provided that the oaths of electors and members of the Legislative Council and Assembly could be administered in either English or French. The old system of mixed juries was abolished in 1792 (S.U.C. 1792, 32 Geo. III, c. 2). While a 1793 resolution provided for unofficial French translations of all statutes of Upper Canada (Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada (1793). Ontario Archives, quoted in Harold Lande, Economic Factors Affecting the Trend of Language in the Province of Québec, unpub. thesis, Law Faculty, McGill Univ., 1930, cited in Sheppard, op. cit., p. 52), no evidence exists to indicate that the resolution was ever implemented.—Sheppard, op cit., p. 52. A resolution passed in 1839 required the exclusive use of English in legislative debates, court cases, and public documents. The Act of Union (S.U.C. 1840, 3–4 Vic., c. 35) required that official records of the Legislative Assembly and Council of United Canada be kept in English only, though this requirement was repealed in 1848. After 1854, bills relating only to Upper Canada were printed in English only except where members of the Legislative Assembly requested French-language versions. Many of the provisions for bilingualism in the years prior to Confederation were aimed primarily at Lower Canada; others specifically excluded Upper Canada.
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• The Separate Schools Act of 1855 permitted the establishment of Roman Catholic separate schools, many of which were de ficto French-language schools, wherever there were fifteen children of the Roman Catholic faith living with a radius of three miles. Under the terms of the Scott Act, passed in 1863, property taxes were to be allocated to support these schools. No provision was made for separate schools on the secondary level, a situation which led in time to the creation of a number of separate schools extending through the tenth grade. The right of Roman Catholics to separate, publicly supported primary schools was guaranteed by section ninety-three of the B.N.A. Act concerning the educational rights of religious minorities held by law at the time of Confederation.
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• The British North America Act of 1867 makes no guarantees concerning the use of either language in the governments of provinces other than Québec. Thus, the Ontario government was free to establish whatever linguistic régime it wished. Between 1867 and 1968, the status of French in Ontario's government changed very little. Debates in the Legislative Assembly were conducted in English. The Adjudicature Act (R.S.O. 1960, c. 197, s. 124) specified that “Writs, pleadings and proceedings in all courts shall be in the English language only,” though the right to an interpreter was explicitly recognized (R.S.O. 1953, c. 169, s. 30(2) and (4), 74, and 75(2); R.S.O. 1960, c. 5, s. 13; R.S.O. 1960, c. 69, ss. 33, 37 (7); R.S.O. 1960, c. 77, s. 14, all cited in Sheppard, op. cit., pp. 165 and 307). In practice, the use of French was not unusual in lower division courts in areas with significant concentrations of French-speaking Ontarians. The Registry Act required that all documents and affidavits be in English or have a translation attached. Without exception, legal requirements for signs or public notices specified the use of English.—Sheppard, op. cit., p. 44, note 68. Foremen and others engaged in mining were required to know English (O.S. 1961–62, c. 81, s. 173). A few Ontario statutes did provide an indirect recognition of the existence of French-speaking citizens. French names were found occasionally in statutes incorporating or making reference to specific corporate entities. The Teaching Professions Act (R.S.O. 1960, c. 393, s. 5) specified that certain boards should include representatives of the Association de L'Enseignement Français de L'Ontario, while the Ontario School Trustees' Council Act (R.S.O. 1960, c. 278, s. 3) specified that the Council should include representatives of the Association des Commissaires des Ecoles Bilingues de L'Ontario. Until 1968, this was the extent of the legal recognition extended to the “French fact” in Ontario.
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• The change resulted from new Department of Education requirements that English be taught in all publicly supported schools and that candidates for teaching certificates demonstrate a knowledge of English grammar.
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• Courses were permitted in French or German as subjects of study.
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• The study of French as a subject of study was limited to one hour per school day.
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• Regulation Seventeen was repealed in 1927 and expunged from the provincial statutes in 1944. Its basic provisions were incorporated into legislation and Department of Education regulations. The status of French in Ontario schools, de facto and de jure, changed very little between 1927 and 1960. After 1927, French-speaking inspectors were appointed for many bilingual schools. Special courses were approved for the teaching of French in bilingual schools, and some French-language textbooks were approved for the earlier grades. In practice, French was used in all grades in some bilingual primary schools. A normal school to train teachers for the bilingual schools was established at the University of Ottawa. Most of the bilingual schools were Roman Catholic separate schools, some of which provided instruction through the tenth grade. There was no statutory requirement for bilingual schools even in areas with large numbers of French-speaking pupils. Instead, the decision to allow even the limited amount of French-language instruction permitted by law was left to local boards.
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• In 1966, some 8,739 French-speaking pupils were enrolled in French-language classes in forty-one secondary schools.—E. Brock Rideout, Policy Changes Between 1967 and 1976 with Respect to Second-Language Learning and Minority-Language Education as Expressed in Acts, Regulations, Directives, Memoranda, and Policy Statements of Provincial Departments and Ministries of Education, research project funded under contract by the Dept. of the Secretary of State (Canada), p. 66. Moreover, of the secondary schools in Ontario in 1966, 7.8% offered courses in Français (French for French-speaking students).—W. H. Tymm, French Language Programmes in Ontario, prepared for the Language Programmes Branch, Dept. of the Secretary of State (Canada), November, 1979, p. 9. Nearly nine thousand students were enrolled in these courses, with an additional 5,750 enrolled in similar courses in the ninth and tenth grades of separate schools.—Rideout, op. cit., p. 58. The same year, 413 French-speaking students were enrolled in the two bilingual teachers' colleges.—Ibid.
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• There were still no schools or classes in which French was a language of instruction for all courses or at all levels. French-language classes and bilingual schools existed in isolation; there was no French-language instructional or educational system. Finally, the qualifications of teachers in bilingual schools were demonstrably lower than those of teachers in English-language schools, even in the same community.—Canada. Royal Commission on Bilingualism …, Report, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 94.
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• Canada. Royal Commission on Bilingualism …, Report, vol. 2, op. cit., pp. 80–81 and 87–93. In 1971, 71% of all Franco-Ontarians had not extended their education beyond the tenth grade, compared to 56% of all Ontario residents.—La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, The Heirs of Lord Durham, vol. 1, trans. by Diane Norak (Ottawa, 1978), p. 42. Despite the differences in educational attainment, the difference in income between Francophones and Anglophones was considerably less in Ontario than in Québec and New Brunswick. The difference for Ontario stood at 7.5% in the 1970's. In Québec, it was 39%; in New Brunswick, it was 21.8%.—La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, Canada's Challenge: Two Cummunities. Two Standards: Francophones Outside Québec and Anglophones in Québec: A Comparative Dossier (Ottawa, 1978), p. 26.
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• In March of 1969, a poll was conducted to determine public support for the federal government's own proposal that federal services be offered in both languages in areas where more than 10% of the population was French-speaking. Of the sample from Ontario, 52% voiced approval and 39% said they disapproved. Among Ontario respondents of English mother tongue, 50% approved and 43% disapproved of the proposal.— C.I.P.O. Poll #334, March, 1969, from Canadian Institute of Public Opinion (Toronto), made available through Social Science Data Archive, Carleton Univ., Ottawa, cited in Frank G. Vallée and John de Vries, “Trends in Bilingualism in Canada,” in Joshua A. Fishman, ed., Advances in the Study of Societal Multilingualism, vol. 9, Contributions to the Sociology of Language (New York: Mouton Publishers, 1978), p. 762.
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• Every ministry has a designated coordinator of French-language services. Currently, nine have full-time coordinators and fifteen have part-time coordinators.
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• In 1980, the designated areas were as follows: the regional municipalities of Sudbury and Ottawa-Carleton; the counties of Stormont, Glengarry, Prescott, and Russell; and the districts of Nipissing. Timiskaming, Sudbury, and Cochrane. In addition, the following communities were included: in the district of Algoma, Blind River, Elliot Lake, Michipicoten, North Shore, and Algoma; in Essex County, Anderson, Belle River, Colchester North, Maidstone, Rochester, Sandwich South and Sandwich West, Tecumseh, and Tilbury North and Tilbury West; in Kent County, Dover, Tilbury and Tilbury East; in the regional municipality of Niagara, Port Colborne and Welland; in Renfrew Country, Pembroke, Stafford, and Westmeath; in Simcoe Country, Penetanguishene and Tiny; and in the District of Thunder Bay, Geraldton, Longlack, Manitouwadge, and Marathon.—Ontario (Province). Office of the Government Coordinator of French-Language Services, Annual Report: 1980, p. 5.
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• Ibid., p. 26.
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• Since its inception in 1981, fourteen municipalities have received aid under the program, which reimburses half the costs (up to $5,000 per year) of language instruction, translation and printing incurred in the development and maintenance of French-language services over a five-year period. The program also provides one-time grants to cover consulting fees (up to $125 per day for up to fifteen days) and the purchase of equipment for simultaneous translation (up to 70% of the cost). In 1979, the Municipal Act was amended to permit the use of bilingual forms in municipal government. Proposals for further amendments to permit municipalities to conduct business and keep records in both English and French have not been adopted.—Ontario (Province). Report of the Joint Committee on the Governance of French Language Elementary and Secondary Schools (1982), p. 41.
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• Ontario … Office of the Government Coordinator …, Annual Report 1980, op. cit.
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• By 1981, most forms and publications of the Ministry of the Attorney General were bilingual.—Ontario (Province). Ministry of the Attorney General: French-Language Services (mimeograph), p. 2.
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• The bill was approved by the Canadian parliament in June of 1978 at the request of the Attorney General of Ontario.
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• By April of 1982, at least some bilingual courts had been established in the districts of Algoma, Cochrane, Essex, Niagara-South, Nipissing, Ottawa-Carleton, Prescott-Russell, Renfrew, and metropolitan Toronto (judicial district of York), Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry, Sudbury, and Timiskaming.
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• In February, 1982, there were two bilingual judges on the Court of Appeal, three on the Supreme Court of Ontario, ten in the County and District Courts, thirteen in the Provincial courts (Criminal Division), and seven in the Provincial Courts (Family Division). In addition, there were some thirteen bilingual Justices of the Peace in Provincial Offenses Courts, thirty-three bilingual Crown Attorneys, and about six hundred bilingual lawyers and eight bilingual reporters in Ontario's courts.—Ibid. Currently, the new Association des Juristes d'Expression Française has approximately 350 members.
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• Both the Council and the Coordinator are under the Ministry of Intergovernmental Affairs, which is responsible for French-language services.
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• Mr. Justice Hall, E. M. Dennis el al., Living and Learning: The Report of the Provincial Commission on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario (Toronto: Ministry of Education, 1968); R. Beriault et al., Rapport du Comité sur les écoles de langue française de I'Ontario/Report of the Commission on French Language Schools in Ontario (Toronto, Dept. of Education, 1968).
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• S.O. 1968, c. 28 s. 2. No regulation has ever been established under this authority.
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• areas with a French-speaking majority, the same conditions would govern English-language instruction. Provision has been made for the creation of English Language Advisory Committees in such cases. In areas where the number of French-speaking students is low, the law specifies that students may attend a French-language school or class anywhere in Ontario to take a subject not offered in French in his own district.
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• (as amended) R.S.O. 1980, c. 129.
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• The study of French is not compulsory in Ontario's elementary or secondary schools, though French courses are offered in all secondary schools.—Rideout, op. cit., p. 94.
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• cases where a board has only a small number of French-language classes, the law requires that it arrange with the Ministry of Education or another board for the services of a French-speaking supervisor.
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• Thus, in all cases the majority on such committees would be French-speaking.
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• Originally, the new law took the form of an amendment to the Schools Administration Act. It was later incorporated into the Education Act of 1974.
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• Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, The State of Minority Language Education in the Ten Provinces of Canada (Toronto: January, 1978), p. 92.
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• Tymm, op. cit., p. 28.
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• Between 1975 and 1977, the Ministry of Education spent over $650,000, a third of the total funds available for the development of educational materials, on the development of French-language materials.—Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, op. cit., p. 93.
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• In 1978, such grants amounted to $5,400 for the first such class established in a school, $3,240 for the second, and $2,160 for the third.— Ibid., p. 91.
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• Direct costs include translation services, the higher cost of textbooks and materials in French, and the additional supervisors, consultants, librarians, and support personnel costs. Indirect costs include those related to administration and building operation and maintenance.—Ralph Benson, Equality of Educational Opportunity and Equalization of the Mill Rate Burden—Provincial Grants to School Boards for 1981 (Ontario Ministry of Education).
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• In 1980, these grants were for $45 per credit for secondary students in grades nine and ten, and $50 for students in grades eleven through thirteen.
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• Since 1975, the Ministry has awarded subsidies, currently around $1.5 million a year, to the Centre Franco-Ontarien de Ressources Pédagogiques for the dissemination to local boards of locally-developed teaching materials on a cost-recovery basis. Since 1975, about nine million dollars has been awarded in subsidies to producers (individual authors, publishers, and non-profit organizations) for the professional production of French-language educational materials which must be sold to boards at the same price or less than the English-language equivalents.
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• This is the only direct pedagogical (non-supervisory) service the Ministry provides to local boards.
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• On the primary level, the majority of French-language schools and schools containing French-language instructional units are Roman Catholic separate schools. In French-language instruction units on the primary level, all subjects but English are taught in French. On the secondary level, French-language instructional units vary from those with all subjects but English taught in French to those with all but French taught in English.
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• Ontario (Province). Office of the Government Coordinator …, op. cit., p. 21.
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• Ontario (Province). Report of the Joint Committee on the Governance of French Language Elementary and Secondary Schools (1982). p. 1.
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• Tymm, op. cit., p. 26. In 1976–77, 24,814 of the 31,510 students enrolled in French-language secondary programs were taking five or more courses taught in French.—Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, op. cit., p. 87.
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• From its inception in 1960, Laurentian was a bilingual university due to its affiliates. The bilingual nature of the University of Ottawa was reaffirmed in its new provincial charter of 1965, which recognized the university as a public bilingual institution “dedicated to the promotion of French culture in Ontario.”
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• Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, op. cit., p. 8.
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• Ibid., p. 100.
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• Ibid., p. 98.
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• Algonquin, Cambrian, Canadore, Niagara, Northern, and St. Lawrence.
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• Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, op. cit., p. 10.
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• Ontario (Province). Office of the Government Co-ordinator …, op. cit., p. 23.
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• Ibid.
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• Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, op. cit., p. 103.
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• Ibid., p. 9. Figures are for full-time equivalencies.
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• Ibid., p. 87.
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• Tymm, op. cit., p. 33.
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• Canada. Act Respecting the Status of the Official Languages of Canada (Ch. 54, Acts 1969) (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1969).
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• By 1977, 27.6% of all federal civil servants were of French mother tongue.—Canada. The Task Force on Canadian Unity, Report, vol. 3, A Future Together: Observations and Recommendations (Ottawa: Minister of Supplies and Services Canada, March, 1979), p. 49.
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• Nevertheless, in 1975 only 12% of all federal civil servants reported that they worked in French. In 1977, only 12% of all federal administration positions were classified as “French essential.”—Ibid., p. 50.
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• Sheppard, op. cit., pp. 293–294.
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• This policy replaced a 1972 policy allowing civil servants to work in the official language of their choice in the National Capitol Area, all of Québec, northeastern Ontario and northeastern New Brunswick.—Canada. The Task Force on Canadian Unity, Report, vol. 3, op. cit., p. 49. Despite the 1966 requirements and the de jure standing of French since 1975 as an official language of work in parts of Ontario outside the National Capital Region, in 1981 only 3.7% of federal employees in Ontario outside the National Capital Region were Francophones.—Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, Pour Nous Inscrire dons I'Avenir: Rapport du Comité de la Politique de Developpement Global (juin 1982), p. 89.
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• The program is in the Language Programmes Branch of the Department of the Secretary of State. Given the provinces' constitutional control over education, the program has operated to provide incentives only.
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• “Full time” is defined as seventy-five percent of class time in elementary schools and sixty percent in secondary schools. A pro-rated amount is awarded for lesser amounts of time. Percentages since 1979 have been approximate since budgets have been capped since that year, with per capita grants pro-rated to the funds available.
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• Canada. Official Languages in Education, Department of the Secretary of State, Descriptive and Financial Summary of Programmes, 1970–71 to 1978–79 and 1979–80 (November, 1980).
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• Canada. Official Languages in Education, op. cit., pp. 3 and 20.
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• Ibid., pp. 5 and 20.
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• Ibid., p. 8.
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• In 1978, in a free vote, the provincial legislature approved in principle the “Loi Cadre,” a private bill providing a comprehensive statutory framework for the provision of French-language services including education, judicial, health, social, and other services. The Government of Premier Davis refused to proceed further with the measure.
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• Ontario (Province). Government Coordinator of French Language Services, French Language Services of the Government of Ontario (December, 1981).
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• Recently, the Ministry of Consumer and Commercial Relations instituted a program permitting the registration of property deeds in French in Sudbury. Presumably, the program will be extended gradually to other areas.
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• Wills can be probated without a translation, and the number of wills drafted in French in increasing.
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• Recent legislative proposals would allow the use of French in these areas with the consent of all parties involved.
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• It is left to the provincial legislatures to define the exact numbers necessary, and to the courts to determine if the legislatures' definitions are reasonable.
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• After a long controversy, in April of 1980 the Ontario Ministry of Education intervened in Pentanguishene to authorize the establishment of a separate French-language high school over the objections of the local board. Nevertheless, a series of delaying tactics on the part of local officials resulted in the postponement of the schools' opening to September, 1981. The new school remains an object of controversy. Many county residents resent having to operate two high schools in the small town of about six thousand, especially since only ninety-seven students were enrolled at the new French-language high school at the end of its first year. Currently, twelve municipalities and the Simcoe County council are on record as supporting a resolution terming it “entirely inappropriate” for county taxpayers to pay for the school's operating costs and demanding that the Ministry of Education, which required that the school be established, cover its operating costs. The Ministry, which financed all but $25,000 of the $1.2 million required to build the school, has refused to pay the local board anything beyond the regular educational grants to which it is entitled. One village reeve was quoted as saying that “if we don't support it with our taxes, then maybe they'll close it and that will solve all our problems … Maybe we can put up an apartment there or something.” As another reeve put it, “The province ordered it built, and now they want to make this county pay for it.”—The Mail-Star, Halifax, August 18, 1982, p. 19.
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• The demands were reflected in the 1977 report of the Ottawa-Carleton Review Commission (the Mayo Commission), which called for the creation of a French-language homogeneous school board within the framework of a regional board for the Ottawa-Carleton region. The Government issued a green paper opposing this recommendation. A joint committee was appointed to study means of increasing the representation of French-speaking citizens in the administration of French-language schools without creating a “third system” of school boards. In April of 1982, over the opposition of French-speaking members who insisted on the need for separate boards, the committee recommended acceptance of the principle of proportional and guaranteed representation of minority-language taxpayers on local boards, with the French “sections” of the boards having jurisdiction in areas of exclusive concern to the French sector. The committee's recommendations would have to be incorporated into the Educational Act to become law.
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• The guarantee is not an absolute one, since the provision of French-language education is only guaranteed “where numbers warrant.”
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• In 1981, 14,918,455 (61.3%) claimed English and 6,249,095 (25.7%) claimed French.
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• Jacques Henripin, Immigration and Language Imbalance (Ottawa: Information Canada, Canadian Immigration and Population Study, 1974), pp. 13 and 15.
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• Canada. The Task Force on Canadian Unity, Report, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 15.
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• Henripin, op. cit., p. 13.
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• Richard Arès, Les Positions—Ethniques, Linguistiques et Religieuses—des Canadiens Français à la suite du Recensement de 1971 (Montreal: Les Editions Bellarmin, 1975).
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• Richard J. Joy, Canada's Offical-Language Minorities (Montreal: C.D. Howe Research Institute—Accent Quebec series, 1978). p. 8.
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• Ibid., p. 89.
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• Arès, op. cit., p. 137.
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• Ibid., p. 138.
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• Roderic P. Beaujot, “A Demographic View on Canadian Language Policy,” Canadian Public Policy, vol. V no. l (Winter, 1979), p. 26.
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• Canada. The Task Force on Canadian Unity, Report, vol. 3, op. cit., p. 51.
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• Joy, op. cit., p. 21.
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• Canada. Statistics Canada. Minority and Second Language Education, Elementary and Secondary Levels, 1979–1980 (Ottawa: Minister of Supply, December, 1980). p. 26.
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• Ontario (Province). Office of the Government Coordinator …, op. cit., p. 21.
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• To date, the number of French-language schools in Ontario as a whole has held relatively constant since while some schools have closed in traditionally French-speaking areas, new ones have opened in other areas.
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• Since 1945, half of all the immigrants to Canada have settled in Ontario. In 1976, 62.7% of all immigrants to Ontario knew English, 1.2% knew French, and 1.7% knew both.—La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, The Heirs of Lord Durham, op. cit, p. 30.
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• Interprovincial migration of French Canadians results in a small net increase in the French-speaking populations of Alberta, British Columbia, and Ontario. Of Ontario's population of French mother tongue, 136,200 were born in other provinces; 107,475 were born in Québec.—Ibid., p. 29.
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• Richard J. Joy, Languages in Conflict (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, Ltd., The Carleton Library No. 61, 1972). p. 47.
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• Joy, Canada's Official Language Minorities, op. cit., pp. 18–19.
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• Ibid., p. 36. The decline in one small town is documented by John D. Jackson in his Community in Crisis (Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, Ltd., 1975), a study of Tecumseh near Windsor. In 1940, Tecumseh was still basically a French community. In 1951, persons of French mother tongue accounted for 53.5% of the town's population, a figure which fell to 34.9% in 1961 and 26.2% in 1971.
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• Jackson, op. cit., p. 46.
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• Pierre Savard et al., Arts with a Difference: A Report on French-Speaking Ontario (Ontario Arts Council, September, 1977). p. 80.
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• Joy, Languages in Conflict, op. cit., p. 117.
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• Ibid., p. 118.
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• Thomas R. Maxwell, The Invisibly French: The French in Metropolitan Toronto (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 1977). p. 164.
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• Within the Metropolitan Corporation, 107 of the 347 census tracts had densities of Francophones over four percent. Only eight of these had densities over ten percent, and the highest was a small tract whose 610 residents included one hundred Francophones. Residential dispersion is even greater in the fringe areas.—Thomas R. Maxwell, “The Invisible French: The French in Metropolitan Toronto,” in Jean Leonard Elliott, ed., Two Nations, Many Cultures: Ethnic Groups in Canada (Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ltd., 1979), p. 114.
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• Maxwell, The Invisible French, op. cit., p. 150.
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• On the other hand, there has been migration of French-speaking Ontarians from the northern and eastern regions to the cities of the south where pressures for assimilation appear to be overwhelming.
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• The counties of Ottawa-Carlton, Dundas, Frontenac, Glengarry, Grenville, Lanark, Leeds, Prescott, Russell, Stormont, and Renfrew.
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• Savard et al., op. cit., p. 56.
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• The counties of Glengarry, Ottawa-Carleton, Prescott, Russell and Stormont.
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• Savard et al., op. cit., pp. 56–57.
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• Joy, Canada's Official-Language Minorities, op cit., p. 16.
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• Savard et al., op. cit., p. 58.
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• Ibid., Table 11
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• Ibid. The net average anglicization rate can be computed as follows: (French mother tongue) – (French language of normal home use)/× 100 (French mother tongue)
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• Ibid.
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• Ibid.
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• Ibid.
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• Danielle J. Lee and Jean Lapointe, “The Emergence of Franco-Ontarians: New Identity, New Boundaries,” in Elliott, op. cit.
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• The counties of Algoma, Cochrane, Nipissing, Timiskaming, and Sudbury.
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• Savard et al., op cit., p. 69.
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• Ibid., Table 14.
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• Ibid., p. 70.
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• Ibid.
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• Lee and Lapointe in Elliott, op. cit., p. 105
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• The exodus of young Francophones from the east and north will also work to decrease the proportional importance of French-speaking Ontarians in these areas.
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• Savard et al., op. cit., Tables 11, 13, and 16.
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• La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, The Hiers of Lord Durham, op. cit., p. 31.
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• La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, Canada's Challenge …. op. cit.
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• Breton's concept of ethnic institutional completeness emphasizes that when a minority can develop and maintain a set of dynamic institutions—religious, educational, political, economic, and social—its members will tend to concentrate their interactions, relations and loyalty within the system. In this way, group boundaries are maintained and relations outside the group discouraged or rendered superfluous.—R. Breton, “Institutional Completeness of Ethnic Communities and the Personal Relations of Immigrants,” The American Journal of Sociology, vol. LXX, no. 2 (1964), pp. 193–205. See also Stanley Lieberson, Language and Ethnic Relations in Canada (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1970) and Leo Driedger and Glenn Church, “Residential Segregation and Institutional Completeness: A Comparison of Ethnic Minorities,” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, vol. 11, no. 1 (February, 1974).
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• Lieberson found that in Canada, most persons raised to speak English or French continue to do so throughout their lives. Thus, Lieberson sees “linguistic continuity as a problem that hinges primarily on intergenerational transfer rather than intragenerational changes.”—Lieberson, op. cit., pp. 189–90.
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• Ibid., p. 203.
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• Ibid., p. 195.
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• Joy, Canada's Official-Language Minorities, op. cit., p. 23.
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• his study of Assimilation in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), Milton F. Gordon concludes that assimilation to the majority language and culture can occur on two levels. “Cultural assimilation” occurs where the minority maintains its own institutions and primary contacts with the majority are few, but secondary contacts, like those of the work world, abound. “Structural assimilation” occurs where traditional institutions are lacking or irrelevant. Maxwell uses Gordon's terminology in his analysis of The Invisible French, op. cit.
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• Canada. Statistics Canada. 1976 Census of Canada. Population: Demographic Characteristics: Mother Tongue, op. cit., p. 63.
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• French-language instruction has been shown to be a major factor in the retention of French among young Franco-Ontarians. Even before the de jure establishment of French-language schools, Lieberson found a significantly higher retention ratio in Ontario “lesser cities” (cities with small numbers of Francophones) with French-language instruction available on the elementary level than in those without it.—Lieberson, op. cit., p. 206.
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• The association was created in 1968 from the Association Canadienne-Française d'Education de I'Ontario.
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• From the Department of the Secretary of State and (sometimes) the Ontario Arts Council. A few receive aid from their municipal governments.
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• Ibid., p. 117.
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• For the previous year, the amount awarded by the Bureau was $478,970 out of a total of $12,129,158.—Ontario Arts Council, Annual Report, 1981.
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• La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, Canada's Challenge…, op. cit., p. 46.
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• This figure includes both federal and provincial contributions.
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• Maxwell, The Invisible French, op. cit., p. 150.
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• La Fédération des Francophones hors Québec, Canada's Challenge …, op. cit., pp. 53–54.
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• Ibid., p. 86.
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• Lieberson found French-speaking residents of Sudbury to be as bilingual as those of Toronto and Edmonton. Nearly 100% of Sudbury's French-speaking men of employment age were bilingual. For Ottawa, the figure was about 90%—Lieberson, op. cit, p. 114.
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• Ibid., p. 13.
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• Maxwell, The Invisible French, op. cit.
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• As has happened in Québec, these factors have also led to demands for change from members of a “new middle class” of French Canadians, deepening the division between Francophones and Anglophones in the area.—Clark in Ossenberg, op. cit., p. 78.
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• Savard et al., op. cit., p. 35.
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