137
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Human exposure to medicinal, dietary, and environmental estrogens

, &
Pages 141-160 | Received 13 Jul 2006, Accepted 01 Sep 2006, Published online: 03 Dec 2010

References

  • Nakamura , Y , Miki , Y , Suzuki , T , Nakata , T , Darnel , AD , Moriya , T , Tazawa , C , Saito , H , Ishibashi , T , Takahashi , S Yamada , S . 2003 . Steroid sulfatase and estrogen sulfotransferase in the atherosclerotic human aorta . Am. J. Pathol. , 163 : 1329 – 1339 .
  • Candiani , M . 2005 . Current guidelines for treatment of endometriosis without laparoscopy . Drugs Today , 41 ( Suppl A ) : 11 – 15 .
  • Yuzpe , AA . 2002 . Oral contraception: Trends over time . J. Reprod. Med. , 47 : 967 – 973 .
  • Zhao , L and Brinton , RD . 2006 . Select estrogens within the complex formulation of conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin) are protective against neurodegenerative insults: Implications for a composition of estrogen therapy to promote neuronal function and prevent Alzheimer's disease . BMC Neurosci. , 7 : 24
  • Robertson , KM , O’Donnell , L , Simpson , ER and Jones , ME . 2002 . The phenotype of the aromatase knockout mouse reveals dietary phytoestrogens impact significantly on testis function . Endocrinology , 143 : 2913 – 2921 .
  • Low , YL , Taylor , JI , Grace , PB , Dowsett , M , Scollen , S , Dunning , AM , Mulligan , AA , Welch , AA , Luben , RN , Khaw , KT Day , NE . 2005 . Phytoestrogen exposure correlation with plasma estradiol in postmenopausal women in European Prospective Investigation of Cancer and Nutrition-Norfolk may involve diet-gene interactions . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomar. , 14 : 213 – 220 .
  • Kavlock , RJ , Daston , GP , DeRosa , C , Fenner-Crisp , P , Gray , LE , Kaattari , S , Lucier , G , Luster , M , Mac , MJ , Maczka , C Miller , R . 1996 . Research needs for risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the US. EPA-sponsored workshop . Environ. Health Perspect. , 104 : 715 – 740 .
  • DeCastro , BR , Korrick , SA , Spengler , JD and Soto , AM . 2006 . Estrogenic activity of polychlorinated biphenyls present in human tissue and the environment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 40 : 2819 – 2825 .
  • Guillette , LJ Jr , Gross , TS , Masson , GR , Matter , JM , Percival , HF and Woodward , AR . 1994 . Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida . Environ. Health Perspect. , 102 : 680 – 688 .
  • Hayes , T , Haston , K , Tsui , M , Hoang , A , Haeffele , C and Vonk , A . 2003 . Atrazine-induced hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American leopard frogs (Rana pipiens): Laboratory and field evidence . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 568 – 575 .
  • Sherman , BM and Korenman , SG . 1975 . Hormonal characteristics of the human menstrual cycle throughout reproductive life . J. Clin. Invest. , 55 : 699 – 706 .
  • Rhoades , RA and Pflanzer , RG . 1991 . Human physiology , 2nd , Philadelphia : Saunders HBJ .
  • Corbin , CJ , Moran , FM , Vidal , JD , Ford , JJ , Wise , T , Mapes , SM , Njar , VC , Brodie , AM and Conley , AJ . 2003 . Biochemical assessment of limits to estrogen synthesis in porcine follicles . Biol. Reprod. , 69 : 390 – 397 .
  • Widmaier , EP , Raff , H and Strang , KT . 2004 . Human physiology , 10th , 668 – 694 . New York : McGraw-Hill .
  • Sanders , SL and Stouffer , RL . 1997 . Localization of steroidogenic enzymes in macaque luteal tissue during the menstrual cycle and simulated early pregnancy: Immunohistochemical evidence supporting the two-cell model for estrogen production in the primate corpus luteum . Biol. Reprod. , 56 : 1077 – 1087 .
  • Kuller , LH , Cauley , JA , Lucas , L , Cummings , S and Browner , WS . 1997 . Sex steroid hormones, bone mineral density, and risk of breast cancer . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 ( Suppl 3 ) : 593 – 599 .
  • Andersen , HR , Vinggaard , AM , Rasmussen , TH , Gjermandsen , IM and Bonefeld-Jorgensen , EC . 2002 . Effects of currently used pesticides in assays for estrogenicity, androgenicity, and aromatase activity in vitro . Toxicol. Appl. Pharm. , 179 : 1 – 12 .
  • Green , S , Walter , P , Kumar , V , Krust , A , Bornert , JM , Argos , P and Chambon , P . 1986a . Human oestrogen receptor cDNA: Sequence, expression and homology to v-erb-A . Nature , 320 : 134 – 139 .
  • Green , S , Walter , P , Greene , G , Krust , A , Goffin , C , Jensen , E , Scrace , G , Waterfield , M and Chambon , P . 1986b . Cloning of the human oestrogen receptor cDNA . J. Steroid Biochem. , 24 : 77 – 83 .
  • Greene , GL , Gilna , P , Waterfield , M , Baker , A , Hort , Y and Shine , J . 1986 . Sequence and expression of human estrogen receptor complementary DNA . Science , 231 : 1150 – 1153 .
  • Mosselman , S , Polman , J and Dijkema , R . 1996 . ER beta: Identification and characterization of a novel human estrogen receptor . FEBS Lett. , 392 : 49 – 53 .
  • Walter , P , Green , S , Greene , G , Krust , A , Bornert , JM , Jeltsch , JM , Staub , A , Jensen , E , Scrace , G Waterfield , M . 1985 . Cloning of the human estrogen receptor cDNA . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 82 : 7889 – 7893 .
  • Mueller , SO and Korach , KS . 2001 . Estrogen receptors and endocrine diseases: Lessons from estrogen receptor knockout mice . Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. , 1 : 613 – 619 .
  • Barkhem , T , Carlsson , B , Nilsson , Y , Enmark , E , Gustafsson , J and Nilsson , S . 1998 . Differential response of estrogen receptor alpha and estrogen receptor beta to partial estrogen agonists/antagonists . Mol. Pharmacol. , 54 : 105 – 112 .
  • Deroo , BJ and Korach , KS . 2006 . Estrogen receptors and human disease . J. Clin. Invest. , 116 : 561 – 570 .
  • Herynk , MH and Fuqua , SA . 2004 . Estrogen receptor mutations in human disease . Endocr. Rev. , 25 : 869 – 898 .
  • Aronica , SM , Kraus , WL and Katzenellenbogen , BS . 1994 . Estrogen action via the cAMP signaling pathway: Stimulation of adenylate cyclase and cAMP-regulated gene transcription . Proc. Natl. Acade. Sci. USA , 91 : 8517 – 8521 .
  • Castoria , G , Migliaccio , A , Bilancio , A , Di Domenico , M , de Falco , A , Lombardi , M , Fiorentino , R , Varricchio , L , Barone , MV and Auricchio , F . 2001 . PI3-kinase in concert with Src promotes the S-phase entry of oestradiol-stimulated MCF-7 cells . Embo. J. , 20 : 6050 – 6059 .
  • Chambliss , KL and Shaul , PW . 2002 . Rapid activation of endothelial NO synthase by estrogen: Evidence for a steroid receptor fast-action complex (SRFC) in caveolae . Steroids , 67 : 413 – 419 .
  • Chambliss , KL , Yuhanna , IS , Mineo , C , Liu , P , German , Z , Sherman , TS , Mendelsohn , ME , Anderson , RG and Shaul , PW . 2000 . Estrogen receptor alpha and endothelial nitric oxide synthase are organized into a functional signaling module in caveolae . Circ. Res. , 87 : E44 – E52 .
  • Chen , Z , Yuhanna , IS , Galcheva-Gargova , Z , Karas , RH , Mendelsohn , ME and Shaul , PW . 1999 . Estrogen receptor alpha mediates the nongenomic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by estrogen . J. Clin. Invest. , 103 : 401 – 406 .
  • Endoh , H , Sasaki , H , Maruyama , K , Takeyama , K , Waga , I , Shimizu , T , Kato , S and Kawashima , H . 1997 . Rapid activation of MAP kinase by estrogen in the bone cell line . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 235 : 99 – 102 .
  • Improta-Brears , T , Whorton , AR , Codazzi , F , York , JD , Meyer , T and McDonnell , DP . 1999 . Estrogen-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase requires mobilization of intracellular calcium . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 96 : 4686 – 4691 .
  • Jessop , HL , Sjoberg , M , Cheng , MZ , Zaman , G , Wheeler-Jones , CP and Lanyon , LE . 2001 . Mechanical strain and estrogen activate estrogen receptor alpha in bone cells . J. Bone Min. Res. , 16 : 1045 – 1055 .
  • Kim , HP , Lee , JY , Jeong , JK , Bae , SW , Lee , HK and Jo , I . 1999 . Nongenomic stimulation of nitric oxide release by estrogen is mediated by estrogen receptor alpha localized in caveolae . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 263 : 257 – 262 .
  • Marino , M , Acconcia , F , Bresciani , F , Weisz , A and Trentalance , A . 2002 . Distinct nongenomic signal transduction pathways controlled by 17beta-estradiol regulate DNA synthesis and cyclin D(1) gene transcription in HepG2 cells . Mol. Biol. Cell. , 13 : 3720 – 3729 .
  • Migliaccio , A , Di Domenico , M , Castoria , G , de Falco , A , Bontempo , P , Nola , E and Auricchio , F . 1996 . Tyrosine kinase/p21ras/MAP-kinase pathway activation by estradiol-receptor complex in MCF-7 cells . EMBO J. , 15 : 1292 – 1300 .
  • Razandi , M , Pedram , A , Greene , GL and Levin , ER . 1999 . Cell membrane and nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs) originate from a single transcript: Studies of ERalpha and ERbeta expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells . Mol. Endocrinol. , 13 : 307 – 319 .
  • Watters , JJ , Campbell , JS , Cunningham , MJ , Krebs , EG and Dorsa , DM . 1997 . Rapid membrane effects of steroids in neuroblastoma cells: Effects of estrogen on mitogen activated protein kinase signalling cascade and c-fos immediate early gene transcription . Endocrinology , 138 : 4030 – 4033 .
  • Sanderson , JT , Seinen , W , Giesy , JP and van den Berg , M . 2000 . 2-Chloro-s-triazine herbicides induce aromatase (CYP19) activity in H295R human adrenocortical carcinoma cells: A novel mechanism for estrogenicity? . Toxicol. Sci. , 54 : 121 – 127 .
  • North American Menopause Society . 2004 . Treatment of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms: Position statement of The North American Menopause Society . Menopause , 11 : 11 – 33 .
  • Whitten , PL and Patisaul , HB . 2001 . Cross-species and interassay comparisons of phytoestrogen action . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 5 – 20 .
  • Stevenson , JC . 2004 . Hormone replacement therapy: Review, update, and remaining questions after the Women's Health Initiative Study . Current Osteoporosis Reports , 2 : 12 – 16 .
  • Herbst , AL and Anderson , D . 1990 . Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina and cervix secondary to intrauterine exposure to diethylstilbestrol . Semin. Surg. Oncol. , 6 : 343 – 346 .
  • Herbst , AL , Hubby , MM , Azizi , F and Makii , MM . 1981 . Reproductive and gynecologic surgical experience in diethylstilbestrol-exposed daughters . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 141 : 1019 – 1028 .
  • Beral , V , Bull , D and Reeves , G . 2005 . Endometrial cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study . Lancet , 365 : 1543 – 1551 .
  • Tikkanen , MJ and Adlercreutz , H . 2000 . Dietary soy-derived isoflavone phytoestrogens. Could they have a role in coronary heart disease prevention? . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 60 : 1 – 5 .
  • Anderson , JW , Johnstone , BM and Cook-Newell , ME . 1995 . Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids . N. Engl. Med. J. , 333 : 276 – 282 .
  • Constantinou , A , Kiguchi , K and Huberman , E . 1990 . Induction of differentiation and DNA strand breakage in human HL-60 and K-562 leukemia cells by genistein . Cancer Res. , 50 : 2618 – 2624 .
  • Harper , A , Kerr , DJ , Gescher , A and Chipman , JK . 1999 . Antioxidant effects of isoflavonoids and lignans, and protection against DNA oxidation . Free Radic. Res. , 31 : 149 – 160 .
  • Pietinen , P , Stumpf , K , Mannisto , S , Kataja , V , Uusitupa , M and Adlercreutz , H . 2001 . Serum enterolactone and risk of breast cancer: A case-control study in eastern Finland . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomar. , 10 : 339 – 344 .
  • Tanimura , M , Kobuchi , H , Utsumi , T , Yoshioka , T , Kataoka , S , Fujita , Y and Utsumi , K . 1992 . Neutrophil priming by granulocyte colony stimulating factor and its modulation by protein kinase inhibitors . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 44 : 1045 – 1052 .
  • Wei , H , Bowen , R , Cai , Q , Barnes , S and Wang , Y . 1995 . Antioxidant and antipromotional effects of the soybean isoflavone genistein . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 208 : 124 – 130 .
  • Yanagihara , K , Ito , A , Toge , T and Numoto , M . 1993 . Antiproliferative effects of isoflavones on human cancer cell lines established from the gastrointestinal tract . Cancer Res. , 53 : 5815 – 5821 .
  • Adlercreutz , H and Mazur , W . 1997 . Phyto-oestrogens and Western diseases . Ann. Med. , 29 : 95 – 120 .
  • Britt , KL , Drummond , AE , Dyson , M , Wreford , NG , Jones , ME , Simpson , ER and Findlay , JK . 2001 . The ovarian phenotype of the aromatase knockout (ArKO) mouse . J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. , 79 : 181 – 185 .
  • Barnes , S , Peterson , G and Coward , L . 1995 . Rationale for the use of genistein-containing soy matrices in chemoprevention trials for breast and prostate cancer . J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. , 22 : 181 – 187 .
  • Lamartiniere , CA , Moore , J , Holland , M and Barnes , S . 1995 . Neonatal genistein chemoprevents mammary cancer . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 208 : 120 – 123 .
  • Constantinou , AI , Lantvit , D , Hawthorne , M , Xu , X , van Breemen , RB and Pezzuto , JM . 2001 . Chemopreventive effects of soy protein and purified soy isoflavones on DMBA-induced mammary tumors in female Sprague-Dawley rats . Nutr. Cancer , 41 : 75 – 81 .
  • Le Bail , JC , Varnat , F , Nicolas , JC and Habrioux , G . 1998 . Estrogenic and antiproliferative activities on MCF-7 human breast cancer cells by flavonoids . Cancer Lett. , 130 : 209 – 216 .
  • Kao , YC , Zhou , C , Sherman , M , Laughton , CA and Chen , S . 1998 . Molecular basis of the inhibition of human aromatase (estrogen synthetase) by flavone and isoflavone phytoestrogens: A site-directed mutagenesis study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 106 : 85 – 92 .
  • Adlercreutz , H , Bannwart , C , Wahala , K , Makela , T , Brunow , G , Hase , T , Arosemena , PJ , Kellis Jr , JT and Vickery , LE . 1993 . Inhibition of human aromatase by mammalian lignans and isoflavonoid phytoestrogens . J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. , 44 : 147 – 153 .
  • Adlercreutz , H , Hockerstedt , K , Bannwart , C , Hamalainen , E , Fortsis , T and Bloigu , S . 1988 . “ Association between dietary fiber, urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonic phytoestrogens, and plasma non-protein bound sex hormones in relation to breast cancer. ” . In Progress in cancer. Research and therapy: Hormones and cancer , Edited by: Bresciani , F . Vol. 35 , 409 – 412 . New York : Raven Press .
  • Adlercreutz , H , Hockerstedt , K , Bannwart , C , Bloigu , S , Hamalainen , E , Fotsis , T and Ollus , A . 1987 . Effect of dietary components, including lignans and phytoestrogens, on enterohepatic circulation and liver metabolism of estrogens and on sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) . J. Steroid. Biochem. , 27 : 1135 – 1144 .
  • Kanatani , Y , Kasukabe , T , Hozumi , M , Motoyoshi , K , Nagata , N and Honma , Y . 1993 . Genistein exhibits preferential cytotoxicity to a leukemogenic variant but induces differentiation of a non-leukemogenic variant of the mouse monocytic leukemia Mm cell line . Leuk. Res. , 17 : 847 – 853 .
  • Matsukawa , Y , Marui , N , Sakai , T , Satomi , Y , Yoshida , M , Matsumoto , K , Nishino , H and Aoike , A . 1993 . Genistein arrests cell cycle progression at G2-M . Cancer Res. , 53 : 1328 – 1331 .
  • Spinozzi , F , Pagliacci , MC , Migliorati , G , Moraca , R , Grignani , F , Riccardi , C and Nicoletti , I . 1994 . The natural tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein produces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in Jurkat T-leukemia cells . Leuk. Res. , 18 : 431 – 439 .
  • Traganos , F , Ardelt , B , Halko , N , Bruno , S and Darzynkiewicz , Z . 1992 . Effects of genistein on the growth and cell cycle progression of normal human lymphocytes and human leukemic MOLT-4 and HL-60 cells . Cancer Res. , 52 : 6200 – 6208 .
  • Krazeisen , A , Breitling , R , Moller , G and Adamski , J . 2001 . Phytoestrogens inhibit human 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 . Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. , 171 : 151 – 162 .
  • Mäkelä , S , Poutanen , M , Lehtimaki , J , Kostian , ML , Santti , R and Vihko , R . 1995 . Estrogen-specific 17 beta-hydroxysteroid oxidoreductase type 1 (EC. 1.1.1.62) as a possible target for the action of phytoestrogens . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 208 : 51 – 59 .
  • Klein , KO . 1998 . Isoflavones, soy-based infant formulas, and relevance to endocrine function . Nutr. Rev. , 56 : 193 – 204 .
  • Setchell , KDR , Zimmer-Nechemias , L , Cai , J and Houbi , JE . 1997 . Exposure of infants to phytoestrogens from soy-based infant formula . Lancet , 350 : 23 – 27 .
  • This , P , De La Rochefordiere , A , Clough , K , Fourquet , A and Magdelenat , H . 2001 . Breast Cancer Group of the Institut. Phytoestrogens after breast cancer . Endocr.-Relat. Cancer , 8 : 129 – 134 .
  • Setchell , KD , Brown , NM , Desai , P , Zimmer-Nechemias , L , Wolfe , BE , Brashear , WT , Kirschner , AS , Cassidy , A and Heubi , JE . 2001 . Bioavailability of pure isoflavones in healthy humans and analysis of commercial soy isoflavone supplements . J. Nutr. , 131 : 1362S – 1375S .
  • Fielden , MR , Samy , SM , Chou , KC and Zacharewski , TR . 2003 . Effect of human dietary exposure levels of genistein during gestation and lactation on long-term reproductive development and sperm quality in mice . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 41 : 447 – 454 .
  • Colborn , T , vom Saal , FS and Soto , AM . 1993 . Developmental effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in wildlife and humans . Environ. Health Perspect. , 101 : 378 – 384 .
  • Daughton , CG and Ternes , TA . 1999 . Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: Agents of subtle change? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 107 ( Suppl 6 ) : 907 – 938 .
  • Dube , M and MacLatchy , DL . 2000 . Endocrine responses of Fundulus heteroclitus to effluent from a bleached-kraft pulp mill before and after installation of reverse osmosis treatment of a waste stream . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 19 : 2788 – 2796 .
  • Garey , J and Wolff , MS . 1998 . Estrogenic and antiprogestagenic activities of pyrethroid insecticides . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 251 : 855 – 859 .
  • Ternes , TA , Kreckel , P and Mueller , J . 1999a . Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plantS – II. Aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge . Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 91 – 99 .
  • Ternes , TA , Stumpf , M , Mueller , J , Haberer , K , Wilken , RD and Servos , M . 1999b . Behavior and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants – I. Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil . Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 81 – 90 .
  • Tyler , CR , Beresford , N , van der Woning , M , Sumpter , JP and Thorpe , K . 2000 . Metabolism and environmental degradation of pyrethroid insecticides produce compounds with endocrine activities . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 19 : 801 – 809 .
  • Chen , H , Xiao , J , Hu , G , Zhou , J , Xiao , H and Wang , X . 2002 . Estrogenicity of organophosphorus and pyrethroid pesticides . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 65 : 1419 – 1435 .
  • Donna , A , Crosignani , P , Robutti , F , Betta , PG , Bocca , R , Mariani , N , Ferrario , F , Fissi , R and Berrino , F . 1989 . Triazine herbicides and ovarian epithelial neoplasms. Scand . J. Work, Environ. Health , 15 : 47 – 53 .
  • Choi , SM , Yoo , SD and Lee , BM . 2004 . Toxicological characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals: Developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 7 : 1 – 24 .
  • Fry , DM , Toone , CK , Speich , SM and Peard , RJ . 1987 . Sex ratio skew and breeding patterns of gulls; demographic and toxicological considerations . Stud. Avian Biol. , 10 : 26 – 43 .
  • Folmar , LC , Denslow , ND , Rao , V , Chow , M , Crain , DA , Enblom , J , Marcino , J and Guilette , LJ . 1996 . Vitellogenin induction and reduced serum testosterone concentrations in feral male carp (Cyprinus carpio) captured near a major metropolitan sewage treatment plant . Environ. Health Perspect. , 104 : 1096 – 1101 .
  • Harries , JE , Huang , J.-W , Phillips , JR and Hunter , LD . 1996 . A survey of estrogenic activity in United Kingdom inland waters . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 15 : 1993 – 2002 .
  • Harries , JE , Janbakhsh , A , Jobling , S , Matthiessen , P , Sumpter , JP and Tyler , CR . 1999 . Estrogenic potency of effluent from two sewage treatment works in the United Kingdom . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 18 : 932 – 937 .
  • Harries , JE , Sheahan , DA , Jobling , S , Matthiessen , P , Neall , P , Sumpter , JP , Tylor , T and Zaman , N . 1997 . Estrogenic activity in five United Kingdom rivers detected by measurement of vitellogenesis in caged male trout . Environ. Health Perspect. , 16 : 534 – 542 .
  • Ashfield , L , Pottinger , TG and Sumpter , JP . 1998 . Exposure of female juvenile rainbow trout to alkylphenolic compounds results in modifications to growth and ovosomatic index . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 17 : 679 – 686 .
  • Blackburn , MA , Kirby , SJ and Waldock , MJ . 1999 . Concentrations of alkylphenol polyethoxylates entering UK estuaries . Mar. Pollut. Bull. , 38 : 109 – 118 .
  • Sheahan , DA , Brighty , GC , Daniel , M , Kirby , SJ , Hurst , MR , Kennedy , J , Morris , S , Routledge , EJ , Sumpter , JP and Waldock , MJ . 2002 . Estrogenic activity measured in a sewage treatment works treating industrial inputs containing high concentrations of alkylphenolic compounds – a case study . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 21 : 507 – 514 .
  • Ropstad , E , Oskam , IC , Lyche , JL , Larsen , HJ , Lie , E , Haave , M , Dahl , E , Wiger , R and Skaare , JU . 2006 . Endocrine disruption induced by organochlorines (OCs): Field studies and experimental models . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 69 : 53 – 76 .
  • Kettles , MK , Browning , SR , Prince , TS and Horstman , SW . 1997 . Triazine herbicide exposure and breast cancer incidence: An ecologic study of Kentucky counties . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 1222 – 1227 .
  • Neuberger , JS . 1996 . Atrazine and/or triazine herbicides exposure and cancer: An epidemiologic review . J. Agromed. , 3 : 9 – 30 .
  • Cooper , RL , Stoker , TE , Goldman , JM , Parrish , MB and Tyrey , L . 1996 . Effect of atrazine on ovarian function in the rat . Reprod. Toxicol. , 10 : 257 – 264 .
  • Eldridge , JC , Fleenor-Heyser , DG , Extrom , PC , Wetzel , LT , Breckenridge , CB , Gillis , JH , Luempert III , LG and Stevens , JT . 1994 . Short-term effects of chlorotriazines on estrus in female Sprague–Dawley and Fischer 344 rats . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 43 : 155 – 167 .
  • Evans , NP , North , T , Dye , S and Sweeney , T . 2004 . Differential effects of the endocrine-disrupting compounds bisphenol-A and octylphenol on gonadotropin secretion, in prepubertal ewe lambs . Domest. Anim. Endocrin. , 26 : 61 – 73 .
  • Gray , LE , Ostby , J , Ferrell , JM , Rehnberg , G , Linder , R , Cooper , RL , Goldman , J , Slott , V and Laskey , J . 1989 . A dose-response analysis of methoxychlor-induced alterations of reproductive development and function in the rat . Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. , 12 : 92 – 108 .
  • Hsu , PC , Lai , TJ , Guo , NW , Lambert , GH and Leon Guo , Y . 2005 . Serum hormones in boys prenatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and dibenzofurans . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 68 : 1447 – 1456 .
  • Bitman , J and Cecil , HC . 1970 . Estrogenic activity of DDT analogs and polychlorinated biphenyls . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 18 : 1108 – 1112 .
  • Fielden , MR , Chen , I , Chittim , B , Safe , SH and Zacharewski , TR . 1997 . Examination of the estrogenicity of 2,4,6,2,6-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 104), its hydroxylated metabolite 2,4,6,2,6-pentachloro-4-biphenylol (HO-PCB 104), and a further chlorinated derivative 2,4,6,2,4,6-hexachlorobiphenyl . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 1238 – 1248 .
  • White , TE , Rucci , G , Liu , Z and Gasiewicz , TA . 1995 . Weanling female Sprague-Dawley rats are not sensitive to the antiestrogenic effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) . Toxicol. Appl. Pharm. , 133 : 313 – 320 .
  • Safe , SH . 1995 . Environmental and dietary estrogens and human health: Is there a problem? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 103 : 346 – 351 .
  • Prelevic , GM , Kocjan , T and Markou , A . 2005 . Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women . Miner. Endocrinol. , 30 : 27 – 36 .
  • Schneider , D and Hsia , J . 2005 . Coronary heart disease prevention in menopausal women . Expert Opin. Pharmacother. , 6 : 695 – 705 .
  • Tovey , S , Dunne , B , Witton , CJ , Forsyth , A , Cooke , TG and Bartlett , JM . 2005 . Can molecular markers predict when to implement treatment with aromatase inhibitors in invasive breast cancer? . Clin. Cancer Res. , 11 : 4835 – 4842 .
  • Dunn , C and Keam , SJ . 2006 . Letrozole: A pharmacoeconomic review of its use in postmenopausal women with breast cancer . Pharmacoeconomics , 24 : 495 – 517 .
  • Kaufmann , M and Rody , A . 2006 . Extended breast cancer treatment with an aromatase inhibitor (Letrozole) after tamoxifen: Why, who and how long? . Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. , 126 : 146 – 154 .
  • Willett , WC , Stampfer , MJ , Colditz , GA , Rosner , BA , Hennekens , CH and Speizer , FE . 1987 . Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer . New Engl. J. Med. , 316 : 22 – 28 .
  • Willett , WC , Hunter , DJ , Stampfer , MJ , Colditz , G , Manson , JE , Spiegelman , D , Rosner , B , Hennekens , CH and Speizer , FE . 1992 . Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. An 8-year follow-up . JAMA , 268 : 2037 – 2044 .
  • Messina , MJ , Persky , V and Setchell , KD . 1994 . Barnes S. Soy intake and cancer risk: A review of the in vitro and in vivo data . Nutr. Cancer , 21 : 113 – 131 .
  • Colditz , GA and Frazier , AL . 1995 . Models of breast cancer show that risk is set by events of early life: Prevention efforts must shift focus . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomar. Prev. , 4 : 567 – 571 .
  • Setchell , KD , Zimmer-Nechemias , L , Cai , J and Heubi , JE . 1998 . Isoflavone content of infant formulas and the metabolic fate of these phytoestrogens in early life . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 68 : 1453S – 1461S .
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 1999 . Cenestin label [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/1999/20992lbl.pdf
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 2003a . Prempro label [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2004/020527S034035lbl.pdf
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 2003b . Premarin lable [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2003/04782s129lbl.pdf
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 2004 . Vivelle label [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2004/20323slr017,025,030_vivelle_lbl.pdf
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 2005a . Climara label [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2005/021258s003lbl.pdf
  • US Food and Drug Administration . 2005b . Alora label [Online]. Available by http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2005/020655s011lbl.pdf
  • Breinholt , V and Larsen , JC . 1998 . Detection of weak estrogenic flavonoids using a recombinant yeast strain and a modified MCF7 cell proliferation assay . Chem. Res. Toxicology , 11 : 622 – 629 .
  • Mayr , U , Butsch , A and Schneider , S . 1992 . Validation of two in vitro test systems for estrogenic activities with zearalenone, phytoestrogens and cereal extracts . Toxicology , 74 : 135 – 149 .
  • Soto , AM , Sonnenschein , C , Chung , HL , Fernandez , MF , Olea , N and Serrano , FO . 1995 . The E-screen assay as a tool to identify estrogens: An update on estrogenic environmental pollutants . Environ. Health Perspect. , 103 ( Suppl 7 ) : 113 – 122 .
  • Soto , AM , Lin , T-M , Justicia , H , Silvia , RM and Sonnenschein , C . 1992 . An “in culture” bioassay to assess the estrogenicity of xenobiotics (E-screen) . Adv. Mod. Environ. Toxicol. , 21 : 295 – 309 .
  • Welshons , WV , Murphy , CS , Koch , R , Calaf , G and Jordan , VC . 1987 . Stimulation of breast cancer cells in vitro by the environmental estrogen enterolactone and the phytoestrogen equol . Breast Cancer Res. Treat. , 10 : 169 – 175 .
  • Steinmetz , R , Brown , NG , Allen , DL , Bigsby , RM and Ben-Jonathan , N . 1997 . The environmental estrogen bisphenol A stimulates prolactin release in vitro and in vivo . Endocrinology , 138 : 1780 – 1786 .
  • Matthews , J , Celius , T , Halgren , R and Zacharewski , T . 2000 . Differential estrogen receptor binding of estrogenic substances: A species comparison . J. Steroid Biochem. , 74 : 223 – 234 .
  • Matthews , JB , Fertuck , KC , Celius , T , Huang , YW , Fong , CR and Zacharewski , T . 2002 . Ability of structurally diverse natural products and synthetic chemicals to induce gene expression mediated by estrogen receptors from various species . J. Steroid Biochem. , 82 : 181 – 194 .
  • Beck , V , Unterrieder , E , Krenn , L , Kubelka , W and Jungbauer , A . 2003 . Comparison of hormonal activity (estrogen, androgen and progestin) of standardized extracts for large scale use in hormone replacement therapy . J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. , 84 : 259 – 268 .
  • Kannan , N , Tanabe , S , Ono , M and Tatsukawa , R . 1989 . Critical evaluation of polychlorinated biphenyl toxicity in terrestrial and marine mammals: Increasing impact of non-ortho and mono-ortho coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls from land to ocean . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 18 : 850 – 857 .
  • Matthews , J and Zacharewski , T . 2000 . Differential binding affinities of PCBs, HO-PCBs, and aroclors with recombinant human, rainbow trout (Onchorhynkiss mykiss), and green anole (Anolis carolinensis) estrogen receptors, using a semi-high throughput competitive binding assay . Toxicol. Sci. , 53 : 326 – 339 .
  • de Kleijn , MJ , van der Schouw , YT , Wilson , PW , Adlercreutz , H , Mazur , W , Grobbee , DE and Jacques , PF . 2001 . Intake of dietary phytoestrogens is low in postmenopausal women in the United States: The Framingham study (1–4) . J. Nutr. , 131 : 1826 – 1832 .
  • Thomson , BM , Cressey , PJ and Shaw , IC . 2003 . Dietary exposure to xenoestrogens in New Zealand . J. Environ. Monit. , 5 : 229 – 235 .
  • van Erp-Baart , MA , Brants , HA , Kiely , M , Mulligan , A , Turrini , A , Sermoneta , C , Kilkkinen , A and Valsta , LM . 2003 . Isoflavone intake in four different European countries: The VENUS approach . Br. J. Nutr. , 89 ( Suppl 1 ) : 25 – 30 .
  • Arai , Y , Uehara , M , Sato , Y , Kimira , M , Eboshida , A , Adlercreutz , H and Watanabe , S . 2000 . Comparison of isoflavones among dietary intake, plasma concentration and urinary excretion for accurate estimation of phytoestrogen intake . J. Epidemiol. , 10 : 127 – 135 .
  • Winter , CK . 1992 . Dietary pesticide risk assessment . Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 127 : 23 – 67 .
  • Valentin-Blasini , L , Blount , BC , Caudill , SP and Needham , LL . 2003 . Urinary and serum concentrations of seven phytoestrogens in a human reference population subset . J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. , 13 : 276 – 282 .
  • Grace , PB , Taylor , JI , Low , YL , Luben , RN , Mulligan , AA , Botting , NP , Dowsett , M , Welch , AA , Khaw , KT , Wareham , NJ Day , NE . 2004 . Phytoestrogen concentrations in serum and spot urine as biomarkers for dietary phytoestrogen intake and their relation to breast cancer risk in European prospective investigation of cancer and nutrition-norfolk . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomar. , 13 : 698 – 708 .
  • Morton , MS , Arisaka , O , Miyake , N , Morgan , LD and Evans , BA . 2002 . Phytoestrogen concentrations in serum from Japanese men and women over forty years of age . J. Nutr. , 132 : 3168 – 3171 .
  • Gammon , MD , Wolff , MS , Neugut , AI , Eng , SM , Teitelbaum , SL and Britton , JA . 2002 . Environmental toxins and breast cancer on Long Island. II. Organochlorine compound levels in blood . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomar. , 11 : 686 – 697 .
  • Thomas , GO , Wilkinson , M , Hodson , S and Jones , KC . 2006 . Organohalogen chemicals in human blood from the United Kingdom . Environ. Pollut. , 141 : 30 – 41 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.