A semi-automated multi-endpoint reactive oxygen species activity analyzer (SAMERA) for measuring the oxidative potential of ambient PM_2.5 aqueous extracts

References

• Abrams, J. Y., R. J. Weber, M. Klein, S. E. Samat, H. H. Chang, M. J. Strickland, V. Verma, T. Fang, J. T. Bates, J. A. Mulholland, A. G. Russell, and P. E. Tolbert. 2017. Associations between ambient fine particulate oxidative potential and cardiorespiratory emergency department visits. Environ. Health Perspect. 125 (10):107008. doi:10.1289/EHP1545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfadda, A. A., and R. M. Sallam. 2012. Reactive oxygen species in health and disease. BioMed Res. Int. 2012:1–14. doi:10.1155/2012/936486.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antiñolo, M., M. D. Willis, S. Zhou, and J. P. Abbatt. 2015. Connecting the oxidation of soot to its redox cycling abilities. Nature Commun. 6 (1):66812. doi:10.1038/ncomms7812.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araujo, J. A., and A. E. Nel. 2009. Particulate matter and atherosclerosis: role of particle size, composition and oxidative stress. Particle Fibre Toxicol. 6 (1):24. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-6-24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayres, J. G., P. Borm, F. R. Cassee, V. Castranova, K. Donaldson, A. Ghio, R. M. Harrison, R. Hider, F. Kelly, I. M. Kooter, et al. 2008. Evaluating the toxicity of airborne particulate matter and nanoparticles by measuring oxidative stress potential—a workshop report and consensus statement. Inhal. Toxicol. 20 (1):75–99. doi:10.1080/08958370701665517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böhmer, A., J. Jordan, and D. Tsikas. 2011. High-performance liquid chromatography ultraviolet assay for human erythrocytic catalase activity by measuring glutathione as o-phthalaldehyde derivative. Anal. Biochem. 410 (2):296–303. doi:10.1016/j.ab.2010.11.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, M. A., G. J. Cerniglia, and A. Zaman. 1990. Microtiter plate assay for the measurement of glutathione and glutathione disulfide in large numbers of biological samples. Anal. Biochem. 190 (2):360–365. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(90)90208-Q.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, J. T., R. J. Weber, J. Abrams, V. Verma, T. Fang, M. Klein, M. J. Strickland, S. E. Sarnat, H. H. Chang, and J. A. Mulholland. 2015. Reactive oxygen species generation linked to sources of atmospheric particulate matter and cardiorespiratory effects. Environmental Sci. Technol. 49 (22):13605–13612. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, S., L. A. Dailey, J. M. Soukup, S. C. Grambow, R. B. Devlin, and Y.-C. T. Huang. 2005. Seasonal variations in air pollution particle-induced inflammatory mediator release and oxidative stress. Environ. Health Perspect. 113 (8):1032–1038. doi:10.1289/ehp.7996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birben, E., U. M. Sahiner, C. Sackesen, S. Erzurum, and O. Kalayci. 2012. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense. World Allergy Org. J. 5 (1):9. doi:10.1097/WOX.0b013e3182439613.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bonomini, F., S. Tengattini, A. Fabiano, R. Bianchi, and R. Rezzani. 2008. Atherosclerosis and oxidative stress. Histol. Histopathol. 23 (3):381–390. doi:10.14670/HH-23.381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charrier, J., and C. Anastasio. 2012. On dithiothreitol (DTT) as a measure of oxidative potential for ambient particles: evidence for the importance of soluble transition metals. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12 (19):9321. doi:10.5194/acp-12-9321-2012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charrier, J. G., and C. Anastasio. 2015. Rates of hydroxyl radical production from transition metals and quinones in a surrogate lung fluid. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (15):9317–9325. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charrier, J. G., A. S. McFall, N. K. Richards-Henderson, and C. Anastasio. 2014. Hydrogen peroxide formation in a surrogate lung fluid by transition metals and quinones present in particulate matter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (12):7010–7017. doi:10.1021/es501011w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charrier, J., N. Richards-Henderson, K. Bein, A. McFall, A. Wexler, and C. Anastasio. 2015. Oxidant production from source-oriented particulate matter–Part 1: oxidative potential using the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay. Atmos. Chem. Phys. (15):2327–2340. doi:10.5194/acp-15-2327-2015.
   Google Scholar
• Charrier, J. G., A. S. McFall, K. K. Vu, J. Baroi, C. Olea, A. Hasson, and C. Anastasio. 2016. A bias in the “mass-normalized” DTT response–an effect of non-linear concentration-response curves for copper and manganese. Atmos. Environ. 144:325–334. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.08.071.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, A. K., C. Sioutas, A. H. Miguel, Y. Kumagai, D. A. Schmitz, M. Singh, A. Eiguren-Fernandez, and J. R. Froines. 2005. Redox activity of airborne particulate matter at different sites in the Los Angeles Basin. Environ. Res. 99 (1):40–47. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2005.01.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chuang, K.-J., C.-C. Chan, T.-C. Su, C.-T. Lee, and C.-S. Tang. 2007. The effect of urban air pollution on inflammation, oxidative stress, coagulation, and autonomic dysfunction in young adults. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 176 (4):370–376. doi:10.1164/rccm.200611-1627OC.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, A. J., M. Brauer, R. Burnett, H. R. Anderson, J. Frostad, K. Estep, K. Balakrishnan, B. Brunekreef, L. Dandona, R. Dandona, et al. 2017. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the global burden of diseases study 2015. Lancet 389 (10082):1907–1918. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crobeddu, B., L. Aragao-Santiago, L.-C. Bui, S. Boland, and A. B. Squiban. 2017. Oxidative potential of particulate matter 2.5 as predictive indicator of cellular stress. Environ. Pollut. 230:125–133. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.06.051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Autréaux, B., and M. B. Toledano. 2007. ROS as signalling molecules: mechanisms that generate specificity in ROS homeostasis. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 8 (10):813. doi:10.1038/nrm2256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delfino, R. J., N. Staimer, T. Tjoa, D. L. Gillen, J. J. Schauer, and M. M. Shafer. 2013. Airway inflammation and oxidative potential of air pollutant particles in a pediatric asthma panel. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 23 (5):466–473. doi:10.1038/jes.2013.25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang, T., V. Verma, J. T. Bates, J. Abrams, M. Klein, M. J. Strickland, S. E. Sarnat, H. H. Chang, J. A. Mulholland, P. E. Tolbert, et al. 2016. Oxidative potential of ambient water-soluble PM 2.5 in the southeastern United States: contrasts in sources and health associations between ascorbic acid (AA) and dithiothreitol (DTT) assays. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16 (6):3865–3879. doi:10.5194/acp-16-3865-2016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang, T., V. Verma, H. Guo, L. King, E. Edgerton, and R. Weber. 2014. A semi-automated system for quantifying the oxidative potential of ambient particles in aqueous extracts using the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay: results from the Southeastern Center for Air Pollution and Epidemiology (SCAPE). Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discussions 7 (7):7245. doi:10.5194/amt-8-471-2015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng, S., D. Gao, F. Liao, F. Zhou, and X. Wang. 2016. The health effects of ambient PM2.5 and potential mechanisms. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 128 :67–74. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.01.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godri, K. J., R. M. Harrison, T. Evans, T. Baker, C. Dunster, I. S. Mudway, and F. J. Kelly. 2011. Increased oxidative burden associated with traffic component of ambient particulate matter at roadside and urban background schools sites in London. PLoS One 6 (7):e21961. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Held, K. D., F. C. Sylvester, K. L. Hopcia, and J. E. Biaglow. 1996. Role of Fenton chemistry in thiol-induced toxicity and apoptosis. Radiation Res. 145 (5):542–553. doi:10.2307/3579272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, S., A. Polidori, M. Arhami, M. Shafer, J. Schauer, A. Cho, and C. Sioutas. 2008. Redox activity and chemical speciation of size fractioned PM in the communities of the Los Angeles-Long Beach harbor. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8 (21):6439–6451. doi:10.5194/acp-8-6439-2008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulskotte, J., H. Denier van der Gon, A. Visschedijk, and M. Schaap. 2007. Brake wear from vehicles as an important source of diffuse copper pollution. Water Sci. Technol. 56 (1):223–231. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen, N. A., M. Strak, A. Yang, B. Hellack, F. J. Kelly, T. A. Kuhlbusch, R. M. Harrison, B. Brunekreef, F. R. Cassee, and M. Steenhof. 2015. Associations between three specific a-cellular measures of the oxidative potential of particulate matter and markers of acute airway and nasal inflammation in healthy volunteers. Occupational Environ. Med. 72 (1):49–56. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-102303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen, N. A. H., A. Yang, M. Strak, M. Steenhof, B. Hellack, M. E. Gerlofs-Nijland, T. Kuhlbusch, F. Kelly, R. Harrison, B. Brunekreef, et al. 2014. Oxidative potential of particulate matter collected at sites with different source characteristics. Sci. Total Environ. 472 :572–581. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.099.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Künzli, N., I. S. Mudway, T. Götschi, T. Shi, F. J. Kelly, S. Cook, P. Burney, B. Forsberg, J. W. Gauderman, M. E. Hazenkamp, et al. 2006. Comparison of oxidative properties, light absorbance, and total and elemental mass concentration of ambient PM2. 5 collected at 20 European sites. Environ. Health Perspect. 114 (5):684–690. doi:10.1289/ehp.8584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kampa, M., and E. Castanas. 2008. Human health effects of air pollution. Environ. Pollut. 151 (2):362–367. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knaapen, A. M., P. J. Borm, C. Albrecht, and R. P. Schins. 2004. Inhaled particles and lung cancer. Part A: Mechanisms. Int. J. Cancer 109 (6):799–809. doi:10.1002/ijc.11708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodavanti, U. P., M. C. Schladweiler, A. D. Ledbetter, W. P. Watkinson, M. J. Campen, D. W. Winsett, J. R. Richards, K. M. Crissman, G. E. Hatch, and D. L. Costa. 2000. The spontaneously hypertensive rat as a model of human cardiovascular disease: evidence of exacerbated cardiopulmonary injury and oxidative stress from inhaled emission particulate matter. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 164 (3):250–263. doi:10.1006/taap.2000.8899.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, N., C. Sioutas, A. Cho, D. Schmitz, C. Misra, J. Sempf, M. Wang, T. Oberley, J. Froines, and A. Nel. 2003. Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Environ. Health Perspect. 111 (4):455. doi:10.1289/ehp.6000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, N., T. Xia, and A. E. Nel. 2008. The role of oxidative stress in ambient particulate matter-induced lung diseases and its implications in the toxicity of engineered nanoparticles. Free Radical Biol. Med. 44 (9):1689–1699. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.01.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longhin, E., J. A. Holme, K. B. Gutzkow, V. M. Arlt, J. E. Kucab, M. Camatini, and M. Gualtieri. 2013. Cell cycle alterations induced by urban PM2. 5 in bronchial epithelial cells: characterization of the process and possible mechanisms involved. Particle Fibre Toxicol. 10 (1):63. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-10-63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, S., K. Ren, X. Liu, L. Chen, M. Li, X. Li, J. Yang, B. Huang, M. Zheng, and Z. Xu. 2015. Production of hydroxyl radicals from Fe-containing fine particles in Guangzhou, China. Atmos. Environ. 123:72–78. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.10.057.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maikawa, C. L., S. Weichenthal, A. J. Wheeler, N. A. Dobbin, A. Smargiassi, G. Evans, L. Liu, M. S. Goldberg, and K. J. G. Pollitt. 2016. Particulate oxidative burden as a predictor of exhaled nitric oxide in children with asthma. Environ. Health Perspect. 124 (10):1616. doi:10.1289/EHP175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudway, I. S., S. T. Duggan, C. Venkataraman, G. Habib, F. J. Kelly, and J. Grigg. 2005. Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates. Particle Fibre Toxicol. 2 (1):6. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudway, I. S., N. Stenfors, A. Blomberg, R. Helleday, C. Dunster, S. Marklund, A. J. Frew, T. Sandström, and F. J. Kelly. 2001. Differences in basal airway antioxidant concentrations are not predictive of individual responsiveness to ozone: a comparison of healthy and mild asthmatic subjects. Free Radical Biol. Med. 31 (8):962–974. doi:10.1016/S0891-5849(01)00671-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh, S. M., H. R. Kim, Y. J. Park, S. Y. Lee, and K. H. Chung. 2011. Organic extracts of urban air pollution particulate matter (PM2. 5)-induced genotoxicity and oxidative stress in human lung bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B cells). Mutation Res./Genetic Toxicol. Environ. Mutagenesis 723 (2):142–151. doi:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2011.04.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pervez, S., R. K. Chakrabarty, S. Dewangan, J. G. Watson, J. C. Chow, and J. L. Matawle. 2016. Chemical speciation of aerosols and air quality degradation during the festival of lights (Diwali). Atmos.c Pollution Res. 7 (1):92–99. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2015.09.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pham-Huy, L. A. H., He, and C. Pham-Huy. 2008. Free radicals, antioxidants in disease and health. Int. J. Biomed. Sci. 4 (2):89.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pietrogrande, M. C., I. Bertoli, F. Manarini, and M. Russo. 2019. Ascorbate assay as a measure of oxidative potential for ambient particles: Evidence for the importance of cell-free surrogate lung fluid composition. Atmos. Environ. 211 (2019):103–112. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.05.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puthussery, J. V. C., Zhang, and V. Verma. 2018. Development and field testing of an online instrument for measuring the real-time oxidative potential of ambient particulate matter based on dithiothreitol assay. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 11 (10):5767–5780. doi:10.5194/amt-11-5767-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman, T., I. Hosen, M. T. Islam, and H. U. Shekhar. 2012. Oxidative stress and human health. Adv. Biosci. Biotechnol. 3 (7):997. doi:10.4236/abb.2012.327123.
   Google Scholar
• Roušar, T., O. Kučera, H. Lotková, and Z. Červinková. 2012. Assessment of reduced glutathione: comparison of an optimized fluorometric assay with enzymatic recycling method. Anal. Biochem. 423 (2):236–240. doi:10.1016/j.ab.2012.01.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saffari, A., N. Daher, M. M. Shafer, J. J. Schauer, and C. Sioutas. 2014. Seasonal and spatial variation in dithiothreitol (DTT) activity of quasi-ultrafine particles in the Los Angeles Basin and its association with chemical species. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part A 49 (4):441–451. doi:10.1080/10934529.2014.854677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarnat, S. E., H. H. Chang, and R. J. Weber. 2016. Ambient PM2. 5 and health: does PM2. 5 oxidative potential play a role? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (194):530–531. doi:10.1164/rccm.201603-0589ED.
   Google Scholar
• Sauvain, J.-J., S. Deslarzes, F. Storti, and M. Riediker. 2015. Oxidative potential of particles in different occupational environments: a pilot study. Ann. Occupational Hygiene 59 (7):882–894. doi:10.1093/annhyg/mev024.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shen, H. A., Barakat, and C. Anastasio. 2011. Generation of hydrogen peroxide from San Joaquin Valley particles in a cell-free solution. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11 (2):753–765. doi:10.5194/acp-11-753-2011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Son, Y., V. Mishin, W. Welsh, S.-E. Lu, J. D. Laskin, H. Kipen, and Q. Meng. 2015. A novel high-throughput approach to measure hydroxyl radicals induced by airborne particulate matter. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12 (11):13678–13695. doi:10.3390/ijerph121113678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, Q., A. Wang, X. Jin, A. Natanzon, D. Duquaine, R. D. Brook, J.-G. S. Aguinaldo, Z. A. Fayad, V. Fuster, and M. Lippmann. 2005. Long-term air pollution exposure and acceleration of atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation in an animal model. JAMA 294 (23):3003–3010. doi:10.1001/jama.294.23.3003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szigeti, T., C. Dunster, A. Cattaneo, D. Cavallo, A. Spinazzè, D. E. Saraga, I. A. Sakellaris, Y. de Kluizenaar, E. J. Cornelissen, and O. Hänninen. 2016. Oxidative potential and chemical composition of PM2.5 in office buildings across Europe–the OFFICAIR study. Environ. Int. 92:324–333. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2016.04.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres-Ramos, Y. D., A. Montoya-Estrada, A. M. Guzman-Grenfell, J. Mancilla-Ramirez, B. Cardenas-Gonzalez, S. Blanco-Jimenez, J. D. Sepulveda-Sanchez, A. Ramirez-Venegas, and J. J. Hicks. 2011. Urban PM2.5 induces ROS generation and RBC damage in COPD patients. Frontiers Biosci. (Elite Edition) 3 E (3):808–817. doi:10.2741/e288.
   Google Scholar
• Verma, V., T. Fang, H. Guo, L. King, J. Bates, R. Peltier, E. Edgerton, A. Russell, and R. Weber. 2014. Reactive oxygen species associated with water-soluble PM 2.5 in the southeastern United States: spatiotemporal trends and source apportionment. Atmos. Chem. Phys. (14):12915–12930. doi:10.5194/acp-14-12915-2014.
   Google Scholar
• Verma, V., T. Fang, L. Xu, R. E. Peltier, A. G. Russell, N. L. Ng, and R. J. Weber. 2015a. Organic aerosols associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by water-soluble PM2. 5. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (7):4646–4656. doi:10.1021/es505577w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma, V., Z. Ning, A. K. Cho, J. J. Schauer, M. M. Shafer, and C. Sioutas. 2009. Redox activity of urban quasi-ultrafine particles from primary and secondary sources. Atmos. Environ. 43 (40):6360–6368. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.09.019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma, V., R. Rico-Martinez, N. Kotra, L. King, J. Liu, T. W. Snell, and R. J. Weber. 2012. Contribution of water-soluble and insoluble components and their hydrophobic/hydrophilic subfractions to the reactive oxygen species-generating potential of fine ambient aerosols. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (20):11384–11392. doi:10.1021/es302484r.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma, V., Y. Wang, R. El-Afifi, T. Fang, J. Rowland, A. G. Russell, and R. J. Weber. 2015b. Fractionating ambient humic-like substances (HULIS) for their reactive oxygen species activity–assessing the importance of quinones and atmospheric aging. Atmos. Environ. 120:351–359. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.09.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidrio, E., H. Jung, and C. Anastasio. 2008. Generation of hydroxyl radicals from dissolved transition metals in surrogate lung fluid solutions. Atmos. Environ. 42 (18):4369–4379. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidrio, E., C. H. Phuah, A. M. Dillner, and C. Anastasio. 2009. Generation of hydroxyl radicals from ambient fine particles in a surrogate lung fluid solution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (3):922–927. doi:10.1021/es801653u.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visentin, M., A. Pagnoni, E. Sarti, and M. C. Pietrogrande. 2016. Urban PM2. 5 oxidative potential: Importance of chemical species and comparison of two spectrophotometric cell-free assays. Environ. Pollut. 219:72–79. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., M. J. Plewa, U. K. Mukherjee, and V. Verma. 2018. Assessing the cytotoxicity of ambient particulate matter (PM) using Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and its relationship with the PM chemical composition and oxidative potential. Atmos. Environ. 179:132–141. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.02.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weichenthal, S., E. Lavigne, G. Evans, K. Pollitt, and R. T. Burnett. 2016. Ambient PM2.5 and risk of emergency room visits for myocardial infarction: impact of regional PM2.5 oxidative potential: a case-crossover study. Environ. Health 15 (1):46. doi:10.1186/s12940-016-0129-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, J. J., A. Cohen, F. Dentener, B. Brunekreef, T. Zhu, B. Armstrong, M. L. Bell, M. Brauer, G. Carmichael, and D. L. Costa. 2016. What we breathe impacts our health: improving understanding of the link between air pollution and health. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (10):4895–4904. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b03827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiong, Q., H. Yu, R. Wang, J. Wei, and V. Verma. 2017. Rethinking the dithiothreitol (DTT) based PM oxidative potential: Measuring DTT consumption versus ROS generation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 (11):6507–6514. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b01272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan, Z., J. Wang, J. Li, N. Jiang, R. Zhang, W. Yang, W. Yao, and W. Wu. 2016. Oxidative stress and endocytosis are involved in upregulation of interleukin‐8 expression in airway cells exposed to PM 2.5. Environ. Toxicol. 31 (12):1869–1878. doi:10.1002/tox.22188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, A., N. A. Janssen, B. Brunekreef, F. R. Cassee, G. Hoek, and U. Gehring. 2016. Children's respiratory health and oxidative potential of PM2.5: the PIAMA birth cohort study. Occupational Environ. Med. 73 (3):154–160. doi:10.1136/oemed-2015-103175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, H., J. Wei, Y. Cheng, K. Subedi, and V. Verma. 2018. Synergistic and antagonistic interactions among the particulate matter components in generating reactive oxygen species based on the dithiothreitol assay. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52 (4):2261–2270. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b04261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., N. Staimer, D. L. Gillen, T. Tjoa, J. J. Schauer, M. M. Shafer, S. Hasheminassab, P. Pakbin, N. D. Vaziri, C. Sioutas, and R. J. Delfino. 2016. Associations of oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers with chemically-characterized air pollutant exposures in an elderly cohort. Environ. Res. 150:306–319. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.06.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar