Estimating mass-absorption cross-section of ambient black carbon aerosols: Theoretical, empirical, and machine learning models

References

• Adachi, K., S. H. Chung, and P. R. Buseck. 2010. Shapes of soot aerosol particles and implications for their effects on climate. J. Geophys. Res. 115 (D15):D15206. doi:10.1029/2009JD012868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backman, J., A. Virkkula, V. Vakkari, J. P. Beukes, P. G. Van Zyl, M. Josipovic, S. Piketh, P. Tiitta, K. Chiloane, T. Petäjä, et al. 2014. Differences in aerosol absorption Ångström exponents between correction algorithms for a particle soot absorption photometer measured on the South African Highveld. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 7 (12):4285–98. doi:10.5194/amt-7-4285-2014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahadur, R., P. S. Praveen, Y. Xu, and V. Ramanathan. 2012. Solar absorption by elemental and brown carbon determined from spectral observations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109 (43):17366–71. doi:10.1073/pnas.1205910109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergstrom, R. W., P. B. Russell, and P. Hignett. 2002. Wavelength dependence of the absorption of black carbon particles: Predictions and results from the TARFOX Experiment and implications for the aerosol single scattering albedo. J. Atmos. Sci. 59 (3):567–77. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<0567:WDOTAO>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohren, C, and D. Huffman. 1983. Absorption and scattering of light by small particles. New York, NY: Wiley-Interscience.
   Google Scholar
• Bond, T. C., T. L. Anderson, and D. Campbell. 1999. Calibration and intercomparison of filter-based measurements of visible light absorption by aerosols. Aerosol. Sci. Technol. 30 (6):582–600. doi:10.1080/027868299304435.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, T. C, and R. W. Bergstrom. 2006. Light absorption by carbonaceous particles: An investigative review. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 40 (1):27–67. doi:10.1080/02786820500421521.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, T. C., S. J. Doherty, D. W. Fahey, P. M. Forster, T. Berntsen, B. J. DeAngelo, M. G. Flanner, S. Ghan, B. Kärcher, D. Koch, et al. 2013. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118 (11):5380–552. doi:10.1002/jgrd.50171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, T. C., G. Habib, and R. W. Bergstrom. 2006. Limitations in the enhancement of visible light absorption due to mixing state. J. Geophys. Res. 111 (D20):D20211. doi:10.1029/2006JD007315.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caponi, L., P. Formenti, D. Massabó, C. Di Biagio, M. Cazaunau, E. Pangui, S. Chevaillier, G. Landrot, M. O. Andreae, K. Kandler, et al. 2017. Spectral- and size-resolved mass absorption efficiency of mineral dust aerosols in the shortwave spectrum: A simulation chamber study. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17 (11):7175–91. doi:10.5194/acp-17-7175-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappa, C. D., K. R. Kolesar, X. Zhang, D. B. Atkinson, M. S. Pekour, R. A. Zaveri, A. Zelenyuk, and Q. Zhang. 2016. Understanding the optical properties of ambient sub- and supermicron particulate matter: Results from the CARES 2010 field study in northern California. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16 (10):6511–35. doi:10.5194/acp-16-6511-2016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappa, C. D., T. B. Onasch, P. Massoli, D. R. Worsnop, T. S. Bates, E. S. Cross, P. Davidovits, J. Hakala, K. L. Hayden, B. T. Jobson, et al. 2012. Radiative absorption enhancements due to the mixing state of atmospheric black carbon. Science 337 (6098):1078–81. doi:10.1126/science.1223447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappa, C. D., X. Zhang, L. M. Russell, S. Collier, A. K. Y. Lee, C.-L. Chen, R. Betha, S. Chen, J. Liu, D. J. Price, et al. 2019. Light absorption by ambient black and brown carbon and its dependence on black carbon coating state for two California, USA, cities in winter and summer. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124 (3):1550–77. doi:10.1029/2018JD029501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazorla, A., R. Bahadur, K. J. Suski, J. F. Cahill, D. Chand, B. Schmid, V. Ramanathan, and K. A. Prather. 2013. Relating aerosol absorption due to soot, organic carbon, and dust to emission sources determined from in-situ chemical measurements. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (18):9337–50. doi:10.5194/acp-13-9337-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakrabarty, R. K, and W. R. Heinson. 2018. Scaling laws for light absorption enhancement due to nonrefractory coating of atmospheric black carbon aerosol. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121 (21):218701. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.218701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, C., S.-W. Kim, M. Lee, S. Lim, W. Fang, Ö. Gustafsson, A. Andersson, R. J. Park, and P. J. Sheridan. 2019. Observation-based estimates of the mass absorption cross-section of black and brown carbon and their contribution to aerosol light absorption in East Asia. Atmos. Environ 212:65–74. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.05.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collaud Coen, M., E. Weingartner, A. Apituley, D. Ceburnis, R. Fierz-Schmidhauser, H. Flentje, J. S. Henzing, S. G. Jennings, M. Moerman, A. Petzold, et al. 2010. Minimizing light absorption measurement artifacts of the aethalometer: Evaluation of five correction algorithms. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 3 (2):457–74. doi:10.5194/amt-3-457-2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, B. M, and M. R. Johnson. 2019. Mass absorption cross-section of flare-generated black carbon: Variability, predictive model, and implications. Carbon N. Y 149:760–71. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2019.04.086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corbin, J. C., H. Czech, D. Massabò, F. B. de Mongeot, G. Jakobi, F. Liu, P. Lobo, C. Mennucci, A. A. Mensah, J. Orasche, et al. 2019. Infrared-absorbing carbonaceous tar can dominate light absorption by marine-engine exhaust. Npj Clim. Atmos. Sci. 2 (1):12. doi:10.1038/s41612-019-0069-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortes, C, and V. Vapnik. 1995. Support-vector networks. Mach. Learn. 20 (3):273–97. doi:10.1007/BF00994018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross, E. S., T. B. Onasch, A. Ahern, W. Wrobel, J. G. Slowik, J. Olfert, D. A. Lack, P. Massoli, C. D. Cappa, J. P. Schwarz, et al. 2010. Soot particle studies-instrument inter-comparison-project overview. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 44 (8):592–611. doi:10.1080/02786826.2010.482113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies, N. W., C. Fox, K. Szpek, M. I. Cotterell, J. W. Taylor, J. D. Allan, P. I. Williams, J. Trembath, J. M. Haywood, and J. M. Langridge. 2019. Evaluating biases in filter-based aerosol absorption measurements using photoacoustic spectroscopy. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 12 (6):3417–34. doi:10.5194/amt-12-3417-2019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobbins, R. A, and C. M. Megaridis. 1991. Absorption and scattering of light by polydisperse aggregates. Appl. Opt. 30 (33):4747–54. doi:10.1364/AO.30.004747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drucker, H., C. J. C. Burges, L. Kaufman, A. J. Smola, and V. Vapnik. 1997. Support vector regression machines. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems155–61. Cambridge, MA (United States): MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fierce, L., T. C. Bond, S. E. Bauer, F. Mena, and N. Riemer. 2016. Black carbon absorption at the global scale is affected by particle-scale diversity in composition. Nat. Commun. 7:12361. doi:10.1038/ncomms12361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fierce, L., T. B. Onasch, C. D. Cappa, C. Mazzoleni, S. China, J. Bhandari, P. Davidovits, D. A. Fischer, T. Helgestad, A. T. Lambe, et al. 2020. Radiative absorption enhancements by black carbon controlled by particle-to-particle heterogeneity in composition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 117 (10):5196–203. doi:10.1073/pnas.1919723117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forestieri, S. D., T. M. Helgestad, A. T. Lambe, L. Renbaum-Wolff, D. A. Lack, P. Massoli, E. S. Cross, M. K. Dubey, C. Mazzoleni, J. S. Olfert, et al. 2018. Measurement and modeling of the multiwavelength optical properties of uncoated flame-generated soot. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18 (16):12141–59. doi:10.5194/acp-18-12141-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García Fernández, C., S. Picaud, and M. Devel. 2015. Calculations of the mass absorption cross sections for carbonaceous nanoparticles modeling soot. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 164:69–81. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2015.05.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gliß, J., A. Mortier, M. Schulz, E. Andrews, Y. Balkanski, S. E. Bauer, A. M. K. Benedictow, H. Bian, R. Checa-Garcia, M. Chin, et al. 2021. AeroCom phase III multi-model evaluation of the aerosol life cycle and optical properties using ground- and space-based remote sensing as well as surface in situ observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21 (1):87–128. doi:10.5194/acp-21-87-2021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorham, K. A., S. M. Raffuse, N. P. Hyslop, and W. H. White. 2021. Comparison of recent speciated PM2.5 data from collocated CSN and IMPROVE measurements. Atmos. Environ. 244:117977. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117977.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyawali, M., W. P. Arnott, R. Zaveri, C. Song, B. Flowers, M. Dubey, A. Setyan, Q. Zhang, S. China, C. Mazzoleni, et al. 2017. Evolution of multispectral aerosol absorption properties in a biogenically-influenced urban environment during the CARES campaign. Atmosphere (Basel) 8 (12):217. doi:10.3390/atmos8110217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, C., K.-N. Liou, Y. Takano, R. Zhang, M. Levy Zamora, P. Yang, Q. Li, and L. R. Leung. 2015. Variation of the radiative properties during black carbon aging: Theoretical and experimental intercomparison. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15 (20):11967–80. doi:10.5194/acp-15-11967-2015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyslop, N. P, and W. H. White. 2009. Estimating precision using duplicate measurements. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 59 (9):1032–9. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.59.9.1032.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson, M. Z. 2001. Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols. Nature 409 (6821):695–7. doi:10.1038/35055518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, M. Z. 2000. A physically-based treatment of elemental carbon optics: Implications for global direct forcing of aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27 (2):217–20. doi:10.1029/1999GL010968.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knox, A., G. J. Evans, J. R. Brook, X. Yao, C.-H. Jeong, K. J. Godri, K. Sabaliauskas, and J. G. Slowik. 2009. Mass absorption cross-section of ambient black carbon aerosol in relation to chemical age. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 43 (6):522–32. doi:10.1080/02786820902777207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondo, Y., H. Matsui, N. Moteki, L. Sahu, N. Takegawa, M. Kajino, Y. Zhao, M. J. Cubison, J. L. Jimenez, S. Vay, et al. 2011. Emissions of black carbon, organic, and inorganic aerosols from biomass burning in North America and Asia in 2008. J. Geophys. Res. 116 (D8):D08204. doi:10.1029/2010JD015152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lack, D. A, and C. D. Cappa. 2010. Impact of brown and clear carbon on light absorption enhancement, single scatter albedo and absorption wavelength dependence of black carbon. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10 (9):4207–20. doi:10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lack, D. A, and J. M. Langridge. 2013. On the attribution of black and brown carbon light absorption using the Ångström exponent. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (20):10535–43. doi:10.5194/acp-13-10535-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lack, D. A., H. Moosmüller, G. R. McMeeking, R. K. Chakrabarty, and D. Baumgardner. 2014. Characterizing elemental, equivalent black, and refractory black carbon aerosol particles: A review of techniques, their limitations and uncertainties. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 406 (1):99–122. doi:10.1007/s00216-013-7402-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesins, G., P. Chylek, and U. Lohmann. 2002. A study of internal and external mixing scenarios and its effect on aerosol optical properties and direct radiative forcing. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (D10):AAC5-1–AAC5-12. doi:10.1029/2001JD000973.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, H, and A. A. May. 2020a. An exploratory approach using regression and machine learning in the analysis of mass absorption cross section of black carbon aerosols: Model development and evaluation. Atmosphere (Basel) 11 (11):1185. doi:10.3390/atmos11111185.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, H, and A. A. May. 2020b. Application of regression and machine learning approaches in the analysis of mass absorption cross section of black carbon aerosols. Zenodo. //zenodo.org/record/3967833.
   Google Scholar
• Li, H., G. R. McMeeking, and A. A. May. 2020. Development of a new correction algorithm applicable to any filter-based absorption photometer. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 13 (5):2865–86. doi:10.5194/amt-13-2865-2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Z., H. Tan, J. Zheng, L. Liu, Y. Qin, N. Wang, F. Li, Y. Li, M. Cai, Y. Ma, et al. 2019. Light absorption properties and potential sources of particulate brown carbon in the Pearl River Delta region of China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 19 (18):11669–85. doi:10.5194/acp-19-11669-2019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, C., J. Li, Y. Yin, B. Zhu, and Q. Feng. 2017. Optical properties of black carbon aggregates with non-absorptive coating. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 187:443–52. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2016.10.023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, F., J. Yon, A. Fuentes, P. Lobo, G. J. Smallwood, and J. C. Corbin. 2020. Review of recent literature on the light absorption properties of black carbon: Refractive index, mass absorption cross section, and absorption function. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 54 (1):33–51. doi:10.1080/02786826.2019.1676878.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, S., A. C. Aiken, K. Gorkowski, M. K. Dubey, C. D. Cappa, L. R. Williams, S. C. Herndon, P. Massoli, E. C. Fortner, P. S. Chhabra, et al. 2015. Enhanced light absorption by mixed source black and brown carbon particles in UK winter. Nat. Commun. 6:8435. doi:10.1038/ncomms9435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May, A. A, and H. Li. 2022. Application of machine learning approaches in the analysis of mass absorption cross-section of black carbon aerosols: Sensitivity analyses and wavelength dependencies. Aerosol Sci. Technol. doi:10.1080/02786826.2022.2114312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May, A. A., G. R. McMeeking, T. Lee, J. W. Taylor, J. S. Craven, I. Burling, A. P. Sullivan, S. Akagi, J. L. Collett, M. Flynn, et al. 2014. Aerosol emissions from prescribed fires in the United States: A synthesis of laboratory and aircraft measurements. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 119 (20):11826–11849. doi:10.1002/2014JD021848.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbengue, S., N. Zikova, J. Schwarz, P. Vodička, A. H. Šmejkalová, and I. Holoubek. 2021. Mass absorption cross-section and absorption enhancement from long term black and elemental carbon measurements: A rural background station in Central Europe. Sci. Total Environ. 794:148365. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDuffie, E. E., S. J. Smith, P. O'Rourke, K. Tibrewal, C. Venkataraman, E. A. Marais, B. Zheng, M. Crippa, M. Brauer, and R. V. Martin. 2020. A global anthropogenic emission inventory of atmospheric pollutants from sector- and fuel-specific sources (1970–2017): An application of the community emissions data system (CEDS). Earth Syst. Sci. Data. 12 (4):3413–42. doi:10.5194/essd-12-3413-2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moosmüller, H., W. P. Arnott, C. F. Rogers, J. C. Chow, C. A. Frazier, L. E. Sherman, and D. L. Dietrich. 1998. Photoacoustic and filter measurements related to aerosol light absorption during the northern front range air quality study (Colorado 1996/1997). J. Geophys. Res. 103 (D21):28149–57. doi:10.1029/98JD02618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moteki, N., Y. Kondo, and K. Adachi. 2014. Identification by single-particle soot photometer of black carbon particles attached to other particles: Laboratory experiments and ground observations in Tokyo. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 119 (2):1031–43. doi:10.1002/2013JD020655.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordmann, S., W. Birmili, K. Weinhold, K. Müller, G. Spindler, and A. Wiedensohler. 2013. Measurements of the mass absorption cross section of atmospheric soot particles using Raman spectroscopy. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118 (21):12075–12085. doi:10.1002/2013JD020021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogren, J. A., J. Wendell, E. Andrews, and P. J. Sheridan. 2017. Continuous light absorption photometer for long-term studies. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 10 (12):4805–18. doi:10.5194/amt-10-4805-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohata, S., T. Mori, Y. Kondo, S. Sharma, A. Hyvärinen, E. Andrews, P. Tunved, E. Asmi, J. Backman, H. Servomaa, et al. 2021. Estimates of mass absorption cross sections of black carbon for filter-based absorption photometers in the Arctic. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 14 (10):6723–48. doi:10.5194/amt-14-6723-2021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petzold, A., J. A. Ogren, M. Fiebig, P. Laj, S.-M. Li, U. Baltensperger, T. Holzer-Popp, S. Kinne, G. Pappalardo, N. Sugimoto, et al. 2013. Recommendations for reporting “black carbon” measurements. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (16):8365–79. doi:10.5194/acp-13-8365-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ram, K, and M. M. Sarin. 2009. Absorption coefficient and site-specific mass absorption efficiency of elemental carbon in aerosols over urban, rural, and high-altitude sites in India. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (21):8233–9. doi:10.1021/es9011542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saliba, G., R. Subramanian, R. Saleh, A. T. Ahern, E. M. Lipsky, A. Tasoglou, R. C. Sullivan, J. Bhandari, C. Mazzoleni, and A. L. Robinson. 2016. Optical properties of black carbon in cookstove emissions coated with secondary organic aerosols: Measurements and modeling. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 50 (11):1264–76. doi:10.1080/02786826.2016.1225947.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saturno, J., C. Pöhlker, D. Massabò, J. Brito, S. Carbone, Y. Cheng, X. Chi, F. Ditas, I. Hrab De Angelis, D. Morán-Zuloaga, et al. 2017. Comparison of different aethalometer correction schemes and a reference multi-wavelength absorption technique for ambient aerosol data. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 10 (8):2837–50. doi:10.5194/amt-10-2837-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarnato, B. V., S. Vahidinia, D. T. Richard, and T. W. Kirchstetter. 2013. Effects of internal mixing and aggregate morphology on optical properties of black carbon using a discrete dipole approximation model. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (10):5089–101. doi:10.5194/acp-13-5089-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnaiter, M., C. Linke, O. Möhler, K. Naumann, H. Saathoff, R. Wagner, U. Schurath, and B. Wehner. 2005. Absorption amplification of black carbon internally mixed with secondary organic aerosol. J. Geophys. Res. 110 (D19):D19204. doi:10.1029/2005JD006046.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher, R. S., D. A. Hence, S. W. Nesbitt, R. J. Trapp, K. A. Kosiba, J. Wurman, P. Salio, M. Rugna, A. C. Varble, and N. R. Kelly. 2021. Convective-storm environments in subtropical South America from high-frequency soundings during RELAMPAGO-CACTI. Mon. Weather Rev. 149 (5):1439–58. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-20-0293.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smola, A. J, and B. Schölkopf. 1998. On a kernel-based method for pattern recognition, regression, approximation, and operator inversion. Algorithmica 22 (1–2):211–31. doi:10.1007/PL00013831.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorensen, C. M. 2001. Light scattering by fractal aggregates: A review. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 35 (2):648–87. doi:10.1080/02786820117868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srivastava, P., M. Naja, T. R. Seshadri, H. Joshi, U. C. Dumka, M. M. Gogoi, and S. S. Babu. 2021. Implications of site‐specific mass absorption cross‐section (MAC) to black carbon observations at a high‐altitude site in the Central Himalaya. Asia-Pacific J. Atmos. Sci. 48 (1):83–96. doi:10.1007/s13143-021-00241-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, A. F., R. R. Draxler, G. D. Rolph, B. J. B. Stunder, M. D. Cohen, and F. Ngan. 2015. NOAA’s HYSPLIT atmospheric transport and dispersion modeling system. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 96 (12):2059–77. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00110.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramanian, R., G. L. Kok, D. Baumgardner, A. Clarke, Y. Shinozuka, T. L. Campos, C. G. Heizer, B. B. Stephens, B. de Foy, P. B. Voss, et al. 2010. Black carbon over Mexico: The effect of atmospheric transport on mixing state, mass absorption cross-section, and BC/CO ratios. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10 (1):219–37. doi:10.5194/acp-10-219-2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sumlin, B. J., W. R. Heinson, and R. K. Chakrabarty. 2018. Retrieving the aerosol complex refractive index using PyMieScatt: A Mie computational package with visualization capabilities. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 205:127–34. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2017.10.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varoquaux, G., G. Emmanuelle, O. Vahtras, H. P. R. Valentin, and E. Al. 2015. Scipy lecture notes: One document to learn numerics, science, and data with Python.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Y. Pang, J. Huang, L. Bi, H. Che, X. Zhang, and W. Li. 2021. Constructing shapes and mixing structures of black carbon particles with applications to optical calculations. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 126 (10). doi:10.1029/2021JD034620.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei, X., Y. Zhu, J. Hu, C. Liu, X. Ge, S. Guo, D. Liu, H. Liao, and H. Wang. 2020. Recent progress in impacts of mixing state on optical properties of black carbon aerosol. Curr. Pollution Rep. 6 (4):380–98. doi:10.1007/s40726-020-00158-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, Y., T. Cheng, D. Liu, J. D. Allan, L. Zheng, and H. Chen. 2018. Light absorption enhancement of black carbon aerosol constrained by particle morphology. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52 (12):6912–9. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b00636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, X., W. Zhao, X. Qian, S. Wang, B. Fang, Q. Zhang, W. Zhang, D. S. Venables, W. Chen, Y. Huang, et al. 2018. The influence of photochemical aging on light absorption of atmospheric black carbon and aerosol single-scattering albedo. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18 (23):16829–44. doi:10.5194/acp-18-16829-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, J., R. L. Modini, M. Zanatta, A. B. Herber, T. Müller, B. Wehner, L. Poulain, T. Tuch, U. Baltensperger, and M. Gysel-Beer. 2021. Variability in the mass absorption cross section of black carbon (BC) aerosols is driven by BC internal mixing state at a central European background site (Melpitz, Germany) in winter. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 21 (2):635–55. doi:10.5194/acp-21-635-2021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanatta, M., M. Gysel, N. Bukowiecki, T. Müller, E. Weingartner, H. Areskoug, M. Fiebig, K. E. Yttri, N. Mihalopoulos, G. Kouvarakis, et al. 2016. A European aerosol phenomenology-5: Climatology of black carbon optical properties at 9 regional background sites across Europe. Atmos. Environ 145:346–64. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.09.035.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanatta, M., P. Laj, M. Gysel, U. Baltensperger, S. Vratolis, K. Eleftheriadis, Y. Kondo, P. Dubuisson, V. Winiarek, S. Kazadzis, et al. 2018. Effects of mixing state on optical and radiative properties of black carbon in the European Arctic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18 (19):14037–57. doi:10.5194/acp-18-14037-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaveri, R. A., J. C. Barnard, R. C. Easter, N. Riemer, and M. West. 2010. Particle-resolved simulation of aerosol size, composition, mixing state, and the associated optical and cloud condensation nuclei activation properties in an evolving urban plume. J. Geophys. Res. 115 (D17):D17210. doi:10.1029/2009JD013616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, R., A. F. Khalizov, J. Pagels, D. Zhang, H. Xue, and P. H. McMurry. 2008. Variability in morphology, hygroscopicity, and optical properties of soot aerosols during atmospheric processing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 105 (30):10291–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804860105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., M. Mao, Y. Yin, and B. Wang. 2018. Numerical investigation on absorption enhancement of black carbon aerosols partially coated with nonabsorbing organics. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 123 (2):1297–308. doi:10.1002/2017JD027833.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., M. Mao, Y. Yin, and B. Wang. 2017. Absorption enhancement of aged black carbon aerosols affected by their microphysics: A numerical investigation. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 202:90–7. doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2017.07.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar