Smoking and Anxiety in Combat Veterans with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Review

REFERENCES

• Acierno , R. A. , Kilpatrick , D. G. , Resnick , H. S. , Saunders , B. E. and Best , C. L. 1996 . Violent assault, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression. Risk factors for cigarette use among adult women . Behavior Modification , 20 : 363 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barlow , D. H. 1988 . Anxiety and its Disorder: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and Panic. , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Beck , A. T. and Steer , R. A. 1987 . The Revised Beck Depression Inventory. , San Antonio , Texas : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Beckham , J. C. , Feldman , M. E. , Barefoot , J. C. , Fairbank , J. A. , Helms , M. J. , Haney , T. L. , Hertzberg , M. A. , Moore , S. D. and Davidson , J. R.T. Negative affect and ambulatory cardiovascular activity in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. , In press
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckham , J. C. , Moore , S. M. , Feldman , M. E. , Kirby , A. C. , Hertzberg , M. A. and Fairbank , J. A. 1998 . Self-report and physician-rated health in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder . American Journal of Psychiatry , 155 : 1565 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckham , J. C. , Kirby , A. C. , Feldman , M. E. , Hertzberg , M. A. , Davidson , J. R.T. , Moore , S. D. and Fairbank , J. A. 1997 . Prevalence and correlates of heavy smoking in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder . Addictive Behaviors , 22 : 637 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckham , J. C. , Lytle , B. L. , Vrana , S. R. , Hertzberg , M. A. , Feldman , M. E. and Shipley , R. H. 1995a . Smoking withdrawal symptoms in response to trauma-related stimuli among Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder . Addictive Behaviors , 20 : 1 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckham , J. C. , Roodman , A. A. , Shipley , R. H. , Hertzberg , M. A. , Cunha , G. H. , Kudler , H. S. , Levin , E. D. , Rose , J. E. and Fairbank , J. A. 1995b . Smoking in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 8 : 461 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billings , A. G. and Moos , R. H. 1983 . Social-environmental factors among light and heavy cigarette smokers: A controlled comparison with non-smokers . Addictive Behaviors , 8 : 381 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremner , J. D. , Southwick , S. M. , Darnell , A. and Charney , D. S. 1996 . Chronic PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans: Course of illness and substance abuse . American Journal of Psychiatry , 153 : 369 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N. , Davis , G. C. , Peterson , E. L. and Schultz , L. 1997 . Psychiatric sequelae of posttraumatic stress disorder in women . Archives of General Psychiatry , 54 : 81 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau , N. , Kilbey , M. M. and Andreski , P. 1992 . Nicotine dependence and major depression: New evidence from a prospective investigation . Archives of General Psychiatry , 50 : 31 – 5 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , P. J. and Wolfe , J. 1994 . Substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder comorbidity . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 35 : 51 – 119 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmody , T. P. 1992 . Affect regulation, nicotine addiction, and smoking cessation . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 24 ( 2 ) : 111 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study Group . 1988 . Health status of Vietnam veteran: II Physical health . Journal of the American Medical Association , 259 : 2708 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charney , D. S. , Deutch , A. Y. , Krystal , J. H. , Southwick , S. M. and Davis , J. 1993 . Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry , 50 : 295 – 305 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COMMIT Research Group . 1994 . Community intervention trial for smoking cessation (COMMIT): I. Cohort results from a four-year community intervention . American Journal of Public Health , 85 : 183 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dansky , B. S. , Saladin , M. E. , Brady , K. T. , Kilpatrick , D. G. and Resnick , H. S. 1995 . Prevalence of victimization and posttraumatic stress disorder among women with substance use disorders: Comparison of telephone and in-person assessment samples . International Journal of the Addictions , 30 : 1079 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson , J. R.T. and Fairbank , J. A. 1992 . “ The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: DSM-IV and Beyond. , Edited by: Davidson , J. R. and Foa , E. B. Washington , D.C : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davidson , J. R.T. , Book , S. W. , Colket , J. T. , Tupler , L. A. , Roth , S. , David , D. , Hertzberg , M. , Mellman , T. , Beckham , J. C. , Smith , R. D. , Davison , R. M. , Katz , R. and Feldman , M. E. 1997 . Assessment of a new self-rating scale for posttraumatic stress disorder: The Davidson Trauma Scale . Psychological Medicine , 27 : 53 – 160 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deering , C. G. , Glover , S. G. , Ready , D. , Eddlesman , H. C. and Alarcon , R. D. 1996 . Unique patterns of comorbidity in posttraumatic stress disorder from different sources of trauma . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 37 : 336 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deutch , A. Y. and Young , C. D. 1995 . “ A model of the stress-induced activation of prefrontal cortical dopamine systems: Coping and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. , Edited by: Friedman , M. J. , Charney , D. S. and Deutch , A. Y. Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Elash , C. A. , Tiffany , S. T. and Vrana , S. R. 1995 . Manipulation of smoking urges and affect through a brief imagery procedure: Self-report, psychophysiological and startle probe responses . Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 3 : 151 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman , M. J. and Schnurr , P. P. 1995 . “ The relationship between trauma, PTSD and physical health ” . In Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. , Edited by: Friedman , M. J. , Charney , D. S. and Deutch , A. Y. Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman , M. J. , Charney , D. S. and Deutch , A. Y. 1995 . Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. , Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , D. G. 1995 . Smoking: Individual Differences, Psychopathology. and Emotion. , Carbondale , Illinois : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , D. G. , Robinson , J. H. , Chamberlin , C. L. and Spielberger , C. D. 1989 . Effects of smoking/nicotine on anxiety, heart rate, and lateralization of EEG during a stressful movie . Psychophysiology , 26 : 311 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giovino , G. A. , Henningfield , J. E. , Tomar , S. L. , Escobedo , L. G. and Slade , J. 1995 . Epidemiology of tobacco use and dependence . Epidemiologic Reviews , 17 : 48 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , B. L. , Lindy , J. D. , Grace , M. C. and Leonard , A. C. 1992 . Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and diagnostic comorbidity in a disaster sample . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 180 : 760 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grillon , C. , Southwick , S. M. and Charney , D. S. 1996 . The psychobiological basis of posttraumatic stress disorder . Molecular Psychiatry , 1 : 278 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gritz , E. R. , Stapleton , J. M. , Hill , M. A. and Jarvik , M. E. 1985 . Prevalence of cigarette smoking in VA medical and psychiatric hospitals . Bulletin of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors , 4 : 151 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , S. M. , Munoz , R. F. , Reus , V. I. and Sees , K. L. 1993 . Nicotine, negative affect, and depression . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 61 : 761 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , S. M. , Tunstall , C. S. , Ginsberg , D. , Benowitz , N. L. and Jones , R. T. 1987 . Nicotine gum and behavioral treatment: A placebo controlled trial . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 55 : 603 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes , J. R. , Hatsukami , D. K. , Mitchell , J. E. and Dahlgren , L. A. 1986 . Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients . American Journal of Psychiatry , 143 : 993 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane , T. M. , Gerardi , J. R. , Lyons , J. A. and Wolfe , J. 1988 . “ The interrelationship of substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiological and clinical considerations ” . In Recent Developments in Alcoholism. New , Edited by: Galanter , M . York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kessler , R. B. , Bromet , E. , Hughes , M. and Nelson , C. B. 1995 . Postraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Study . Archives of General Psychiatry , 5 : 1048 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulka , R. A. , Schlenger , W. E. , Fairbank , J. A. , Hough , R. L. , Jordan , B. K. , Marmar , C. R. and Weiss , D. S. 1990 . Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Veterans Readjustment Study. , New York : Brunner/Mazel .
   Google Scholar
• Levin , E. D. , Rose , J. E. , Behm , F. and Caskey , N. H. 1991 . The effects of smoking-related sensory cues on psychological stress . Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior , 39 : 265 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litz , T. B. , Keane , T. M. , Fisher , L. , Marx , B. and Monaco , V. 1992 . Physical health complaints in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 5 : 131 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFall , M. E. , MacKay , P. W. and Donovan , D. M. 1992 . Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder and severity of substance abuse in Vietnam veterans . Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 53 : 357 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monti , P. M. , Rohsenow , D. J. , Rubonis , A. V. , Niaura , R. S. , Sirota , A. D. , Colby , S. M. , Goddard , P. and Abrams , D. B. 1993 . Cue exposure with coping skills treatment for male alcoholics: A preliminary investigation . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 61 : 1011 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monti , P. M. , Abrams , D. B. , Kadden , R. M. and Cooney , N. L. 1989 . Treating Alcohol Dependence. , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nesbitt , P. D. 1973 . Smoking, physiological arousal and emotional responses . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 25 : 137 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman , R. K. , Orr , S. P. , Forgue , D. F. , de Jong , J. B. and Claiborn , J. M. 1987 . Psychophysiologic assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in Vietnam combat veterans . Archives of General Psychiatry , 44 : 970 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomerleau , O. F. and Pomerleau , C. S. 1991 . Research on stress and smoking: Progress and problems . British Journal of Addiction , 86 : 599 – 603 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pomerleau , O. F. and Pomerleau , C. S. 1988 . Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Evaluation. , New York : Alan R. Liss .
   Google Scholar
• Pomerleau , O. F. and Pomerleau , C. S. 1984 . Neuroregulators and the reinforcement of smoking: Toward a biobehavioral explanation . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews , 8 : 503 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontieri , F. E. , Anda , G. , Orzi , F. and Di Chiara , G. 1996 . Effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens and similarity to those of addictive drugs . Nature , 382 : 255 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prins , A. , Kaloupek , D. G. and Keane , T. M. 1995 . “ Psychophysiological evidence for autonomic arousal and startle in traumatized adult populations ” . In Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to PTSD. , Edited by: Friedman , M. J. , Charney , D. S. and Deutch , A. Y. Philadelphia : Lippincott-Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Rohsenow , D. J. , Monti , P. M. , Rubonis , A. V. , Sirota , A. D. , Niaura , R. S. , Colby , S. M. , Wunschel , S. M. and Abrams , D. B. 1994 . Cue reactivity as a predictor of drinking among male alcoholics . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 62 : 620 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose , J. E. , Ananda , S. and Jarvik , M. E. 1983 . Cigarette smoking during anxiety-provoking and monotonous task . Addictive Behaviors , 8 : 353 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose , J. E. , Behm , F. M. , Westman , E. C. , Levin , E. D. , Stein , R. M. , Lane , J. D. and Ripka , G. V. 1994 . Combined effects of nicotine and mecamylamine in attenuating smoking satisfaction . Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 2 : 1 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schacter , S. 1978 . Pharmacological and psychological determinants of smoking . Annals of Internal Medicine , 88 : 104 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schacter , S. 1973 . “ Nesbitt's paradox ” . In Smoking Behavior: Motives and Incentives. , Edited by: Dunn , W. L. Jr. Washington , D.C. : Winston & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Shiffman , S. M. 1993a . Assessing smoking patterns and motives . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 5 : 732 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiffman , S. M. 1993b . Smoking cessation treatment: Any progress? . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 61 : 718 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiffman , S. M. , Fischer , L. A. , Paty , J. A. , Gnys , M. , Hickcox , M. and Kassel , J. D. 1994 . Drinking and smoking: A field study of their association . Annals of Behavioral Medicine , 16 : 203 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Spielberger , CD . 1983 . Manual of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. , Palo Alto , California : Consulting Psychologists Press .
   Google Scholar
• Southwick , S. M. , Bremner , D. , Krystal , J. H. and Charney , D. S. 1994 . Psychobiologic research in posttraumatic stress disorder . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 17 : 251 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone , A. A. , Schwartz , J. E. , Neale , J. M. , Shiffman , S. , Marco , C. A. , Hickcox , M. , Paty , J. , Porter , L. S. and Cruise , L. J. 1998 . A comparison of coping assessed by ecological momentary assessment and retrospective recall . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1670 – 80 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiffany , S. T. and Drobes , D. J. 1991 . The development and initial validation of a questionnaire on smoking urges . British Journal of Addiction , 86 : 1467 – 76 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Triffleman , E. G. , Marmar , C. R. , Delucchi , K. L. and Ronfeldt , H. 1995 . Childhood trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in substance abuse inpatients . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 183 : 172 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department U.S. of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) . 1984 . The Health Consequences of Smoking: Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: A Report of the Surgeon General. , Washington , D.C. : U.S. GPO .
   Google Scholar
• van der Kolk , B. A. and Fisler , R. E. 1994 . Childhood abuse and neglect and loss of self-regulation . Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic , 58 : 145 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrana , S. R. , Roodman , A. A. and Beckham , J. C. 1995 . Selective processing of trauma-relevant words in posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Anxiety Disorders , 9 : 515 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witvliet , C. V. 1997 . Traumatic intrusive imagery as an emotional memory phenomenon: A review of research and explanatory information processing theories . Clinical Psychology Review , 17 : 509 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zelman , D. C. , Brandon , T. H. , Jorenby , D E. and Baker , T. B. 1992 . Measures of affect and nicotine dependence predict differential response to smoking cessation treatments . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 60 : 943 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinser , M. C. , Baker , T. B. and Sherman , J. E. 1992 . Relation between self-reported affect and drug urges and cravings in continuing and withdrawing smokers . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 101 : 617 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zweben , J. E. , Clark , H. W. and Smith , D. E. 1994 . Traumatic experiences and substance abuse: Mapping the territory . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 26 : 327 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar