1,068
Views
154
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A Review of the Nonmedical Use of Ketamine: Use, Users and Consequences

Pages 419-433 | Published online: 06 Sep 2011

REFERENCES

  • Abajian , J. C. , Page , P. and Morgan , M. 1973 . Effects of droperidol and nitrazepam on emergence reactions following ketamine anesthesia . Anesthesia and Analgesia; Current Researches , 52 : 385 – 9 .
  • Adler , C. M. , Malhotra , A. K. , Elma , I. , Goldberg , T. , Egan , M. , Pickar , D. and Breier , A. 1999 . Comparison of ketamine-induced thought disorder in healthy volunteers and thought disorder in schizophrenia . American Journal of Psychiatry , 156 ( 10 ) : 1646 – 49 .
  • Ahmed , S. N. and Petchkovsky , L. 1980 . Abuse of ketamine . British Journal of Psychiatry , 137 : 303
  • Anand , A. , Chamey , D. S. , Oren , D. A. , Bennan , R. M. , Hu , X. S. , Cappiello , A. and Krystal , J. H. 2000 . Attenuation of the neuropsychiatric effects of ketamine and lamotrigine: Support for hyperglutamatergic effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists . Archives of General Psychiatry , 57 : 270 – 76 .
  • Anonymous . 1997 . Ketamine: The hot new drug of abuse . Forensic Drug Abuse Advisor , 9 ( 6 ) : 10 – 20 .
  • Antal , M. , Musci , G. and Faludi , A. 1978 . Ketamine anesthesia & intraocular pressure . Annals of Opthalmology , 10 : 1281 – 89 .
  • Arvanov , V. L. and Wang , R. Y. 1998 . M100907, a selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist and a potential antipsychotic drug, facilitates N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor mediated neuro-transmission in the rat medial prefrontal cortical neurons in vitro . Neuropsychopharmacology , 18 ( 3 ) : 197 – 209 .
  • Ashley , R. 1978 . Avant-garde highs . High Times , 31 : 62 – 64 .
  • Auer , R. N. , Coupland , S. G. , Jason , G. W. , Archer , D. P. , Payne , J. , Belzberg , A. J. , Ohtaki , M. and Tranmer , B. I. 1996 . Postischemic therapy with MK-801 (dizocilpine) in a primate model of transient focal brain ischaemia . Molecular and Chemical Neuropathology , 29 ( 2–3 ) : 193 – 210 .
  • Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence . 2000 . Australian Illicit Drug Report 1998–99 Canberra, , Australia : Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence. .
  • Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence . 1995 . Australian Illicit Drug Report 1994 Canberra, , Australia : Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence. .
  • Bartus , R. T. , Dean , R. L. and Flicker , R. C. 1987 . “ Cholinergic psychopharmacology: an integration of human and animal research on memory. ” . In Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress Edited by: Meltzer , H. Y. New York : Raven Press. .
  • Benveniste , H. , Drejer , J. , Schouseboe , A. and Diemer , H. 1984 . Elevation of extracellular concentrations of glutamate & aspartate in rat hippocampus during cerebral ischaemia monitored by microdialysis . Journal of Neurochemistry , 43 : 1369 – 74 .
  • Berman , R. M. , Cappiello , A. , Anand , A. , Oren , D. A. , Heninger , G. R. , Charney , D. S. and Krystal , J. H. 2000 . Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients . Biological Psychiatry , 47 ( 4 ) : 351 – 54 .
  • Borgbjerg , F. M. , Svensson , B. A. , Frigast , C. and Gordh , T. 1994 . Histopathology after repeated intrathecal injections of preservative-free ketamine in the rabbit: A light and electron microscopic examination . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 79 ( 1 ) : 105 – 11 .
  • Brown , L. P. 1995 . Pulse Check: National Trends in Drug Abuse—Fall Washington, D.C. : Office of National Drug Control Policy. .
  • Calderone , L. , Grimes , P. and Shalev , M. 1986 . Acute reversible cataract induced by xylazine and by ketamine-xylazine anesthesia in rats and mice . Experimental Eye Research , 42 : 331 – 37 .
  • Carpenter , W. T. 1999 . The schizophrenia ketamine challenge study debate . Biological Psychiatry , 46 : 1081 – 91 .
  • Cloud , J. 1997 . Is your kid on K? . Time , : 56 – 57 . October 20: [USA and Pacific editions only, but posted on World Wide Web]
  • Connell , P. H. 1958 . Amphetamine Psychosis O.U.P. . Institute of Psychiatry Maudsley Monographs 5.
  • Corbett , D. 1990 . Ketamine blocks the plasticity associated with prefrontal cortex self-stimulation . Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour , 37 ( 4 ) : 685 – 88 .
  • Cosmopolitan . 1997 . “ Sedate rape. ” . In Cosmopolitan 25th Anniversary Issue. 109 March
  • Cotman , C. W. , Monaghan , D. and Ganong , A. 1988 . Excitatory amino acid neurotransmission: NMDA receptors and Hebb-type synaptic plasticity . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 11 : 61 – 80 .
  • Coyle , J. T. 1997 . The nagging question of the function of N-acetylaspartylglutamate . Neurobiology of Disease , 4 ( 3–4 ) : 231 – 38 .
  • Crysell , A. 1998 . “ Lost in the K-hole. ” . In Muzik 45 – 8 . September: (contact: [email protected])
  • Curran , V. and Morgan , C. 2000 . Cognitive, dissociative and psychogenic effects of ketamine in recreational users on the night of drug use and 3 days later . Addiction , 95 : 575 – 90 .
  • Dalgarno , P. J. and Shewan , D. 1996 . Illicit use of ketamine in Scotland . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 28 ( 2 ) : 191 – 99 .
  • Dershwitz , M. , Sreter , F. A. and Ryan , J. F. 1989 . Ketamine does not trigger malignant hyperthermia in susceptible swine . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 69 ( 4 ) : 501 – 03 .
  • Dixon , J. F. , Los , G. V. and Hokin , L. E. 1994 . Lithium stimulates glutamate “release” and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate accumulation via activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in monkey and mouse cerebral cortex slices . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. , 91 ( 18 ) : 8358 – 62 .
  • Domino , E. F. , Chodoff , P. and Corssen , G. 1965 . Pharmacologic effects of C1–581, a new dissociative anesthetic, in man . Clinical and Pharmacological Therapeutics , 6 : 279 – 91 .
  • Dotson , J. W. , Ackerman , D. L. and West , L. J. 1995 . Ketamine abuse . Journal of Drug Issues , 25 : 751 – 57 .
  • Dragunow , M. , Currie , R. W. , Faull , R. L.M. , Robertson , H. A. and Jansen , K. L.R. 1989 . Immediate early genes, kindling and longterm potentiation . Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews , 13 : 301 – 13 .
  • Drejer , J. and Honore , T. 1987 . Phencyclidine analogues inhibit NMDA-stimulated [3H]GABA release from cultured cortex neurons . European Journal of Pharmacology , 143 : 287 – 90 .
  • Drug Enforcement Agency . 1997 . Ketamine abuse increasing at: www.usdoj.gov/dea/program/diverson/divpub/substanc/ketamine.htm
  • Durieux , M. E. and Nietgen , G. W. 1997 . Synergistic inhibition of muscarinic signalling by ketamine stereoisomers and the preservative benzthonium chloride . Anesthesiology , 86 ( 6 ) : 1326 – 33 .
  • Ebert , B. , Mikkelson , S. , Thorkildsen , C. and Borgbjerg , F. M. 1997 . Norketamine, the main metabolite of ketamine, is a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist in the rat cortex and spinal cord . European Journal of Pharmacology , 333 : 99 – 104 .
  • Ellison , G. 1995 . The N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists phencyclidine, ketamine and dizocilpine as both behavioral and anatomical models of the dementias . Brain Research Reviews , 20 : 250 – 67 .
  • Engelhardt , W. 1997 . Recovery and psychomimetic reactions following S- (+)-ketamine . Anesthetist , 46 ( Supplement 1 ) : S38 – S42 .
  • Evans , W. S. Ontogenesis of auditory perception and memory at 20 weeks' gestation . Abstracts of the 1998 Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society . Brighton. pp. p8
  • Farber , P. 1995 . Futureritual: Magick for the 21st Century Chicago, Illinois : Eschaton Productions. .
  • Farber , N. B. , Foster , J. , Duhan , N. L. and Olney , J. W. 1996 . Olanzapine and fluperlapine mimic clozapine in preventing MK-801 neurotoxicity . Schizophrenia Research , 21 ( 1 ) : 33 – 37 .
  • Farber , N. B. , Hanslick , J. , Kirby , C. , McWilliams , L. and Olney , J. W. 1998 . Serotonergic agents that activate 5HT2A receptors prevent NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity . Neuropsychopharmacology , 18 ( 1 ) : 57 – 62 .
  • Feinberg , I. and March , J. D. 1995 . Observations on delta homeostasis, the one-stimulus model of NREM-REM alternation and the neurobiologic implications of experimental dream studies . Behavioral Brain Research , 69 ( 1–2 ) : 97 – 108 .
  • Feldman , Z. , Gurevitch , B. , Artru , A. , Oppenheim , A. , Shohami , E. , Reichenthal , E. and Shapira , Y. 1996 . Effect of magnesium given 1 hour after head trauma on brain edema and neurological outcome . Journal of Neurosurgery , 85 ( 1 ) : 131 – 37 .
  • Felser , J. M. and Orban , D. J. 1982 . Dystonic reaction after ketamine abuse . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 11 : 673 – 74 .
  • Fine , J. and Finestone , E. C. 1973 . Sensory disturbances following ketamine anaesthesia: Recurrent hallucinations . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 53 : 428
  • Food and Drug Administration . 1979 . Ketamine abuse . FDA Drug Bulletin , 9 : 24
  • Ghoneim , M. M. , Hinrichs , J. V. , Mewaldt , S. P. and Peterson , R. C. 1985 . Ketamine: Behavioral effects of subanaesthetic doses . Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology , 5 : 70 – 77 .
  • Gibson , W. 1984 . Neuromancer London : Victor Gollancz. .
  • Gill , J. R. and Stajic , M. 2000 . Ketamine in non-hospital and hospital deaths in New York City . Journal of Forensic Science , 45 : 655 – 8 .
  • Grant , I. S. , Nimmo , W. S. and Clements , J. A. 1981 . Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of i.m. and oral ketamine . British Journal of Anaesthesia , 53 : 805 – 09 .
  • Green , S. M. , Rothrock , S. G. , Lynch , E. L. , Ho , M. , Harris , T. , Hestdalen , R. , Hopkins , G. A. , Garrett , W. and Westcott , K. 1998 . Intramuscular ketamine for pediatric sedation in the emergency department: Safety profile in 1,022 cases . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 31 ( 6 ) : 688 – 97 .
  • Grinspoon , L. and Bakalar , S. B. 1979 . Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. New York : Basic Books/Harper Colophon. .
  • Grof , S. 1988 . The Adventure of Self-Discovery—Dimensions of Consciousness and New Perspectives in Psychotherapy and Inner Exploration New York : State University of New York (SUNY) Press. .
  • Hall , C. H. and Cassidy , J. 1992 . Young drug users adopt “bad trip” anaesthetic . The Independent , 2 : 5 April 2
  • Hansen , G. , Jensen , S. B. , Chandreash , L. and Hilden , T. 1988 . The psychotropic effect of ketamine . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 20 ( 4 ) : 419 – 25 .
  • Hefez , A. and Lanyi , G. 1972 . Neuropsychiatric manifestations of ketamine hydrochloride . Israel Annals of Psychiatry and Related Disciplines , 10 : 180 – 87 .
  • Hejja , P. and Galloon , S. 1975 . A consideration of ketamine dreams . Canadian Anaesthesia Society Journal , 22 : 100 – 05 .
  • Hirota , K. and Lambert , D. G. 1996 . Ketamine: Its mechanism of action and unusual clinical uses . British Journal of Anaesthesia , 77 ( 4 ) : 441 – 44 .
  • Hope , B. T. 1998 . Cocaine and the ATP-1 transcription factor . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 844 : 1 – 6 .
  • Humphries , Y. , Melson , M. and Gore , D. 1997 . Superiority of oral ketamine as an analgesic and sedative for wound care procedures in the pediatric patient with burns . Journal of Burn Care Rehabilitation , 18 ( 1 Pt 1 ) : 34 – 36 .
  • Hurt , P. H. and Ritchie , E. C. 1994 . A case of ketamine dependence (Letter) . American Journal of Psychiatry , 151 : 779
  • Hustveit , O. , Maurset , A. and Oye , I. 1995 . Interaction of the chiral forms of ketamine with opioid, phencyclidine, sigma and muscarinic receptors . Pharmacology and Toxicology , 77 ( 6 ) : 355 – 59 .
  • Irifune , M. , Shimzu , T. and Nomoto , M. 1991 . Ketamine-induced hyperlocomotion associated with alteration of pre-synaptic components of dopamine neurons in the nucleus accumbens of mice . Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior , 40 : 399 – 407 .
  • Ishihara , H. 1997 . Uneventful total intravenous anaesthesia with ketamine for schizophrenic surgical patients . European Journal of Anaesthesiology , 14 ( 1 ) : 47 – 51 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. Ketamine, Dreams and Realities Saratoga, Florida : Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (contact [email protected]). . In press
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1997a . The ketamine model of the near -death experience: a central role for the NMDA receptor . Journal of Near-Death Studies , 16 ( 1 ) : 5 – 27 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1997b . “ Adverse psychological effects associated with the use of ecstasy (MDMA) and their treatment. ” . In Ecstasy Reconsidered Edited by: Saunders , N. London : Neal's Yard Desk Top Publishing Studio. .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1997c . The brain drain . The Face , 3 ( 3 ) : 166 – 70 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1996a . “ Neuroscience, ketamine and the near-death experience: The role of glutamate and the NMDA receptor. ” . In The Near-Death Experience: A Reader Edited by: Bailey , L. J. and Yates , J. New York : Routledge. .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1996b . “ Using ketamine to induce the near-death experience: Mechanism of action and therapeutic potential. ” . In Yearbook for Ethnomedicine and the Study of Consciousness [Jahrbuch furr Ethnomedizin und Bewubtseinsforschung] Issue 4, 1995 Edited by: Ratsch , C. and Baker , J. R. 55 – 81 . Berlin : VWB. .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1993 . Non-medical use of ketamine . British Medical Journal , 306 : 601 – 02 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1990a . Neuroscience and the near-death experience: Roles for the NMDA-PCP receptor, the sigma receptor and the endopsychosins . Medical Hypotheses , 31 : 25 – 29 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1990b . Ketamine: Can chronic use impair memory? . International Journal of Addictions , 25 : 133 – 9 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. 1989 . Near-death experience and the NMDA receptor . British Medical Journal , 298 : 1708 – 9 .
  • Jansen , K. L.R. , Faull , R. and Dragunow , M. 1989 . Excitatory amino acid receptors in the human cerebral cortex: A quantitative autoradiographic study comparing the distribution of [3H]TCP, [3H]glycine, 1-[3H]glutamate, [3H]AMPA and [3H]kainic acid binding sites . Neuroscience , 32 : 587 – 607 .
  • Johnstone , R. E. 1973 . A ketamine trip . Anesthesiology , 39 : 460
  • Kamaya , H. and Krishna , P. R. 1987 . Ketamine addiction (letter) . Anaesthesia , 67 ( 5 ) : 861 – 62 .
  • Ketcham , D. W. 1990 . Where there is no anaesthesiologist: The many uses of ketamine . Tropical Doctor. , 20 ( 4 ) : 163 – 66 .
  • Klausen , N. O. , Wiberg-Jorgensen , F. and Chraemmer-Jorgensen , B. 1983 . Psychotomimetic reactions after low-dose ketamine infusion . British Journal of Anaesthesia , 55 ( 4 ) : 297 – 301 .
  • Krumholz , W. , Demel , C. , Jung , S. , Meuthen , G. , Knecht , J. and Hempelmann , G. 1995 . The effects of thiopentone, etomidate, ketamine and midazolam on several bactericidal functions of polymorphonuclear leucocytes in vitro . European Journal of Anaesthesiology , 12 ( 2 ) : 141 – 46 .
  • Krupitsky , E. M. and Grinenko , A. Y. 1997 . Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT): A review of the results of ten years of research . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 29 ( 2 ) : 165 – 83 . [Reprints: Research Laboratory, Leningrad Regional Dispensary of Narcology, 19/1 Novo-Deviatkino, Vsevolozhsky District, St. Petersburg 188661, Russia 26; e-mail: [email protected]]
  • Krystal , J. H. , Karper , L. P. , Bennett , A. , D'Souza , D. C. , Abi-Dargham , A , Morrissey , K. , Abi-Saab , D. , Bremner , J. D. , Bowers , M. B. , Suckow , R. F. , Stetson , P. , Heninger , G. R. and Charney , D. S. 1998 . Interactive effects of subanesthetic ketamine and subhypnotic lorazepam in humans . Psychopharmacology (Berlin) , 135 ( 3 ) : 213 – 29 .
  • Krystal , J. H. , Karper , L. P. , Seibyl , J. P. , Freeman , G. K. , Delaney , R. , Bremner , J. D. , Heniger , G. R. , Bowers , M. B. and Charey , D. S. 1994 . Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive antagonist ketamine in humans . Archives of General Psychiatry , 51 : 199 – 214 .
  • Kugler , J. and Doenicke , A. 1994 . Ketamine-anticonvulsive and proconvulsive actions . Anaesthesist , 43 ( Suppl 2 ) : S2 – S7 .
  • Kumar , A. , Kumar , A. , Bajaj , A. , Sarkar , P. and Grover , V. K. 1992 . The effect of music on ketamine induced emergence phenomena . Anaesthesia , 47 ( 5 ) : 438 – 39 .
  • Lahti , A. C. , Koffel , B. , LaPorte , D. and Tamminga , C. A. 1995 . Subanesthetic doses of ketamine stimulate psychosis in schizophrenia . Neuropsychopharmacology , 13 ( 1 ) : 9 – 19 .
  • Leary , T. and Sinus , R. U. 1997 . Design for Dying London : Thorsons/HarperCollins. .
  • Licata , M. , Pierini , G. and Popoli , G. 1994 . A fatal ketamine poisoning . Journal of Forensic Science , 39 ( 5 ) : 1314 – 20 .
  • Lilly , J. C. 1978 . The Scientist: A Novel Autobiography New York : Bantam Books/J. B. Lippincott. . [now available from Ronin Publishing]
  • Lindefors , N. , Barati , S. and O'Connor , W. T. 1997 . Differential effects of single and repeated ketamine administration on dopamine, serotonin and GABA transmission in rat medial prefrontal cortex . Brain Research , 759 ( 2 ) : 205 – 12 .
  • Malhotra , A. K. , Breier , A. , Goldman , D. , Picken , L. and Pickar , D. 1998 . The apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele is associated with blunting of ketamine-induced psychosis in schizophrenia. A preliminary report . Neuropsychopharmacology , 19 ( 5 ) : 445 – 8 .
  • Malhotra , A. K. , Pinals , D. A. , Adler , C. M. , Elman , I. , Clifton , A. , Pickar , D. and Breier , A. 1997 . Ketamine-induced exacerbation of psychotic symptoms and cognitive impairment in neuroleptic-free schizophrenics . Neuropsychopharmacology , 17 ( 3 ) : 141 – 50 .
  • Malhotra , A. K. , Pinals , D. A. , Weingartner , H. , Sirocco , K. , Missar , C. D. , Pickar , D. and Breier , A. 1996 . NMDA receptor function and human cognition: The effects of ketamine in healthy volunteers . Neuropsychopharmacology , 14 ( 5 ) : 301 – 07 .
  • Malinovsky , J. M. , Servin , F. , Cozian , A. , Lepage , J. Y. and Pinaud , M. 1996 . Ketamine and norketamine plasma concentrations after i.v, nasal and rectal administration in children . British Journal of Anaesthesiology , 77 ( 2 ) : 203 – 07 .
  • Malinovsky , J. M. , Lepage , J. Y. , Cozian , A. , Mussini , J. M. , Pinaudt , M. and Souron , R. 1993 . Is ketamine or its preservative responsible for neurotoxicity in the rabbit? . Anesthesiology , 78 ( 1 ) : 109 – 15 .
  • Miranda , A. F. , Boegman , R. J. , Beninger , R. J. and Jhamandas , K. 1997 . Protection against quinolinic acid-mediated excitotolicity in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by endogenous kynurenic acid . Neuroscience , 78 ( 4 ) : 967 – 75 .
  • Modvig , K. M. and Nielsen , S. F. 1977 . Psychological changes in children after anaesthesia: A comparison between halothane and ketamine . Acta Anaesthesiology Scandinavica , 21 ( 6 ) : 541 – 44 .
  • Moghaddam , B. 1994 . Recent basic findings in support of excitatory amino acid hypotheses of schizophrenia . Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry , 18 ( 5 ) : 859 – 70 .
  • Moghaddam , B. , Adams , B. , Verma , A. and Daly , D. 1997 . Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: A novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive dĩsruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex . Journal of Neuroscience , 7 ( 8 ) : 2921 – 27 .
  • Moore , M. and Alltounian , H. 1978 . Journeys Into The Bright World Massachusetts : Para Research. .
  • Moore , N. N. and Bostwick , J. M. 1999 . Ketamine dependence in anesthesia providers . Psychosomatics , 40 ( 4 ) : 356 – 59 .
  • Morita , T. , Hitomi , S. , Saito , S. , Fujita , T. , Uchihashi , Y. and Kurihara , H. 1995 . Repeated ketamine administration produces up-regulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the forebrain, and reduces behavioral sensitivity to scopolamine in mice . Psychopharmacology (Berlin) , 117 ( 4 ) : 396 – 402 .
  • Nakao , S. , Adachi , T. , Murakawa , M. , Shinomura , T. , Kurata , J. , Shichino , T. , Shibata , M. , Tocyama , I. , Kimura , H. and Mori , K. 1996 . Halothane and diazepam inhibit ketamine-induced c-Fos expression in the rat cingulate cortex . Anesthesiology , 85 ( 4 ) : 874 – 82 .
  • Nakao , S. , Arai , T. , Mori , K. , Yasuhara , O. , Tooyama , I. and Kimura , H. 1993 . High-dose ketamine does not induce c-Fos protein expression in rat hippocampus . Neuroscience Letters , 151 ( 1 ) : 33 – 36 .
  • Nishimura , M. and Sato , K. 1999 . Ketamine stereoselectively inhibits rat dopamine transporter . Neuroscience Letters , 274 : 131 – 4 .
  • Nishina , K. , Akamatsu , H. , Mikawa , K. , Shiga , M. , Maekawa , N. , Obara , H. and Niwa , Y. 1998 . The inhibitory effects of thiopental, midazolam, and ketamine on human neutrophil functions . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 86 ( 1 ) : 159 – 65 .
  • Olney , J. W. 1994 . Neurotoxicity of NMDA receptor antagonists: An overview . Psychopharmacology Bulletin , 30 ( 4 ) : 533 – 40 .
  • Olney , J. W. , Labruyere , J. and Price , M. T. 1989 . Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs . Science , 244 : 1360 – 62 .
  • Olney , J. W. , Labruyere , J. , Wang , G. , Wozniak , D. F. , Price , M. T. and Sesma , M. A. 1991 . NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity: Mechanism and prevention . Science , 254 : 1515 – 18 .
  • Oyama , T. , Matsumoto , F. and Kudo , T. 1970 . Effects of ketamine on adrenocortical function in man . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 49 : 697 – 700 .
  • Parke-Davis . 2000 . Product Information Sheet: Ketalar. ABPI Compendium of Data Sheets and Summaries of Product Characteristics, 1999–2000 London : Datapharm Publications Ltd. .
  • Perel , A. and Davidson , J. T. 1976 . Recurrent hallucinations following ketamine . Anaesthesia , 31 : 1081 – 83 .
  • Pfeiffer , A. , Brantl , V. , Herz , A. and Hemrich , H. M. 1986 . Psychotomimesis mediated by k receptors . Science , 233 : 744 – 76 .
  • Plourde , G. , Baribeau , J. and Bonhomme , V. 1997 . Ketamine increases the amplitude of the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in humans . British Journal of Anaesthesia , 78 ( 5 ) : 524 – 29 .
  • Poole , R. and Brabbins , C. 1996 . Drug induced psychosis . British Journal of Psychiatry , 168 : 135 – 38 .
  • Reier , C. E. 1971 . Ketamine—“dissociative agent” or hallucinogen? . New England Journal of Medicine , 284 ( 14 ) : 791 – 2 .
  • Release . 1997 . Release Drugs and Dance Survey: An Insight into the Culture London : Release. . [contact: Release, 388 Old Street, London ECIV 9LT, U.K.]
  • Reuter . 1996 . “ Party craze for eat's drug. ” . In Guardian 11 July 2
  • Rogo , D. S. 1984 . Ketamine and the near-death experience . Anabiosis: The Journal of Near-Death Studies , 4 : 87 – 96 .
  • Rothman , S. M. and Olney , J. W. 1987 . Excitotoxicity & the NMDA receptor . Trends in Neurosciences , 10 : 299 – 302 .
  • Rozza , A. , Masoero , E. , Favalli , L. , Lanza , E. , Govoni , S. , Rizzo , V. and Montalbetti , L. 2000 . Influence of different anaesthetics on extracellular amino acids in rat brain . Journal of Neuroscience Methods , 101 : 165 – 69 .
  • Sabom , M. B. 1982 . Recollections of Death: A Medical Investigation New York : Harper and Row. .
  • Schorn , T. O.F. and Whitwam , J. G. 1980 . Are there long term effects of ketamine on the nervous system? . British Journal of Anesthesia , 52 : 967 – 68 .
  • Schwender , D. , Daunderer , M. , Kunze-Kronawitter , H. , Klasing , S. , Poppel , E. and Peter , K. 1997 . Awareness during general anaesthesia—incidence, clinical relevance and monitoring . Acta Anaesthesiology Scandinavica , 11 : 313 – 14 .
  • Sharp , F. R. 1998 . Personal communication
  • Sharp , F. R. , Butman , M. , Aardalen , K. , Nickolenko , J. , Nakki , R. , Massa , S. M. , Swanson , R. A. and Sagar , S. M. 1994 . Neuronal injury produced by NMDA antagonists can be detected using heat shock proteins and can be blocked with antipsychotics . Psychopharmacology. Bulletin , 30 ( 4 ) : 555 – 60 .
  • Shelton , G. and Sheridan , D. 1975 . “ L.A. breakdown. ” . In Freak Brothers 4. San Francisco : Ripoff Press. .
  • Siegel , R. K. 1978 . “ Phencyclidine and ketamine intoxication: A study of recreational users. ” . In Phencyclidine Abuse: An Appraisal Edited by: Peterson , R. C. and Stillman , R. C. Rockville, Maryland : National Institute on Drug Abuse. . NIDA Research Monograph No. 21
  • Sklar , G. S. , Zukin , S. R. and Reilley , T. A. 1981 . Adverse reactions to ketamine anesthesia. Abolition by a psychological technique . Anaesthesia , 36 : 183 – 90 .
  • Skovmand , K. 1996 . Swedes alarmed at ketamine misuse . Lancet , 348 ( 9020 ) : 122
  • Slaby , A. 1994 . Handbook of Psychiatric Emergencies. , Fourth Ed. Bridgeport, Connecticut : Appleton and Lange. .
  • Smith , J. A. and Santer , L. J. 1993 . Respiratory arrest following intramuscular ketamine injection in a 4-year old child . Annals of Emergency Medicine , 22 : 613 – 15 .
  • Sobel , R. M. , Morgan , B. W. and Murphy , M. 1999 . Ketamine in the ED: Medical politics versus patient care . American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 17 ( 7 ) : 722 – 25 .
  • Soyka , M. , Krupitski , G. and Volki , G. 1993 . Phenomenology of ketamine induced psychosis . Sucht , 5 : L327 – 31 .
  • Stafford , P. 1992 . Psychedelics Encyclopaedia. , 3rd Ed. Berkeley, California : Ronin Publishing. .
  • Strassman , R. J. 1984 . Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs: A review of the literature . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 172 : 477 – 595 .
  • Sybert , J. W. and Kyff , J. V. 1983 . Ketamine treatment of status epilepticus . Anesthesiology , 58 : 203
  • Taylor , P. A. and Towey , R. M. 1971 . Depression of laryngeal reflexes during ketamine anesthesia . British Medical Journal , ii : 688 – 9 .
  • Thompson , G. E. 1972 . Ketamine-induced convulsions . Anesthesiology , 37 : 662 – 63 .
  • Thomson , A. M. , West , D. C. and Lodge , D. 1985 . An N-methylaspartate receptor-mediated synapse in rat cerebral cortex: A site of action of ketamine? . Nature , 313 : 479 – 81 .
  • Tomlinson , A. 1994 . “ Ketamine. ” . In World Anaesthesia OnLine Article 5. at: http://www.hda.ox.ac.uk/wfsa/html/u04/u04–01010.htmIssue 4
  • Topp , L. , Hando , J. , Degenhardt , L. , Dillon , P. , Roche , A. and Solowij , N. 1998 . Ecstasy Use in Australia Sydney, , Australia : National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre. . Monograph No. 39
  • Turner , D. M. 1994 . The Essential Guide to Psychedelics California : Panther Press. . out of print, but may be found at: http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/Spa/4558/
  • Van der Kolk , B. A. 1997 . The psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 58 ( Suppl. 9 ) : 16 – 24 .
  • Verma , A. and Moghaddam , B. 1996 . NMDA receptor antagonists impair prefrontal cortex function as assessed via spatial delayed alternation performance in rats: Modulation by dopamine . Journal of Neuroscience , 16 : 373 – 79 .
  • Vollenweider , F. X. , Leenders , K. L. , Oye , I. , Hell , D. and Angst , J. 1997a . Differential psychopathology and patterns of cerebral glucose utilisation produced by (S)- and (R)-ketamine in healthy volunteers using positron emission tomography (PET) . European Neuropsychopharmacology , 7 : 25 – 38 .
  • Vollenweider , F. X. , Leenders , K. L. , Scharfetter , C. , Antonini , A. , Maguire , P. , Missimer , J. and Angst , J. 1997b . Metabolic hyperfrontality and psychopathology in the ketamine model of psychosis using positron emission tomography (PET) and [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) . European Neuropsychopharmacology , 7 : 9 – 24 .
  • Weil , A. and Rosen , W. 1983 . Chocolate to Morphine: Understanding the Mind-Active Drugs Boston, Massachusetts : Houghton-Mifflin. .
  • Weiner , A. L. , Vieira , L. , McKay , C. A. and Bayer , M. J. 2000 . Ketamine abusers presenting to the emergency department: A case series . Journal of Emergency Medicine , 18 ( 4 ) : 447 – 51 .
  • Weiss , J. 1986 . Ketamine protects cultured neocortical neurons from hypoxic injury . Brain Research , 380 : 186 – 90 .
  • White , M. J. and Ryan , C. 1996 . Pharmacological properties of ketamine . Drug and Alcohol Review , 15 : 145 – 55 .
  • Williams , K. , Dichter , M. A. and Molinoff , P. B. 1992 . Up-regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors on cultured cortical neurons after exposure to antagonists . Molecular Pharmacology , 42 : 147 – 51 .
  • Winnicott , D. W. 1958 . Collected Papers New York : Basic Books. .
  • World Health Organisation . 1992 . The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Geneva : World Health Organisation. .
  • Young , L. A. , Young , L. G. , Klein , M. M. , Klein , D. M. and Beyer , D. 1977 . Recreational Drugs New York : Collier Books. .
  • Zielmann , S. and Grote , R. 1995 . The effects of long-term sedation on intestinal function . Anaesthesist , 44 ( Suppl 3 ) : S549 – S558 .
  • Zsigmond , E. K. 1976 . Arterial hypoxemia caused by i.v. ketamine . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 55 : 311 – 14 .
  • Zsigmond , E. K. 1971 . Malignant hyperthermia with subsequent uneventful anesthesia . Anesthesia and Analgesia , 50 : 1111 – 12 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.