Clinical Approach to the Heavy Cannabis User in the Age of Medical Marijuana

References

• Amerian Society of Addiction Medicine. 2012. White paper on state-level proposals to legalize marijuana. http://www.asam.org/advocacy/find-a-policy-statement/view-policy-statement/public-policy-statements/2012/07/30/state-level-proposals-to-legalize-marijuana
   Google Scholar
• Ammerman, S. 2011. Medical marijuana: Update for the pediatrician. California Pediatrician. Winter 27 (1):11–13.
   Google Scholar
• Ashtari, M., B. Avants, L. Cyckowski, K. L. Cervellione, D. Roofeh, P. Cook, J. Gee, S. Sevy, and S. Kumra. 2011. Medial temporal structures and memory functions in adolescents with heavy cannabis use. Journal of Psychiatric Research 45 (8):1055–66. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosier, B., G. G. Muccioli, E. Hermans, and D. M. Lambert. 2010. Functionally selective cannabinoid receptor signalling: Therapeutic implications and opportunities. Biochemical Pharmacology 80 (1):1–12. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2010.02.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briones, A., F., Cumsille, A., Henao, and B. Pardo (Eds). 2013. The drug problem in the Americas. Washington, DC: The Organization of American States.
   Google Scholar
• Budney, A. J., J. R. Hughes, B. A. Moore, and R. Vandrey. 2004. Review of the validity and significance of cannabis withdrawal syndrome. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (11):1967–77. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.11.1967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budney, A. J., R. G. Vandrey, J. R. Hughes, J. D. Thostenson, and Z. Bursac. 2008. Comparison of cannabis and tobacco withdrawal: Severity and contribution to relapse. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 35 (4):362–68. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chhatwal, J. P., M. Davis, K. A. Maguschak, and K. J. Ressler. 2005. Enhancing cannabinoid neurotransmission augments the extinction of conditioned fear. Neuropsychopharmacology 30 (3):516–24. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darmani, N. A. 2001. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR 141716A reverses the antiemetic and motor depressant actions of WIN 55, 212-2. European Journal of Pharmacology 430 (1):49–58. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(01)01355-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, M., S. H. Godley, G. Diamond, F. M. Tims, T. Babor, J. Donaldson, H. Liddle, J. C. Titus, Y. Kaminer, C. Webb, N. Hamilton, and R. Funk. 2004. The Cannabis Youth Treatment (CYT) Study: Main findings from two randomized trials. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 27 (3):197–213. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2003.09.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devane, W. A., F. A. Dysarz 3rd, M. R. Johnson, L. S. Melvin, and A. C. Howlett. 1988. Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain. Molecular Pharmacology 34 (5):605–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devane, W. A., L. Hanus, A. Breuer, R. G. Pertwee, L. A. Stevenson, G. Griffin, D. Gibson, A. Mandelbaum, A. Etinger, and R. Mechoulam. 1992. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science 258 (5090):1946–49. doi:10.1126/science.1470919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fattore, L., P. Fadda, M. S. Spano, M. Pistis, and W. Fratta. 2008. Neurobiological mechanisms of cannabinoid addiction. Molecular Cellular Endocrinology 286 (Suppl 1–2):S97–S107. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.02.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., and J. M. Boden. 2008. Cannabis use and later life outcomes. Addiction 103 (6):969–76. doi:10.1111/add.2008.103.issue-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontes, M., K. I. Bolla, P. J. Cunha, P. P. Almeida, F. Jungerman, R. R. Laranjeira, R. A. Bressan, and A. L. Lacerda. 2011. Cannabis use before age 15 and subsequent executive functioning. The British Journal of Psychiatry 198:442–47. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.077479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freund, T. F., I. Katona, and D. Piomelli. 2003. Role of endogenous cannabinoids in synaptic signaling. Physiological Reviews 83 (3):1017–66. doi:10.1152/physrev.00004.2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fride, E. 2002. Endocannabinoids in the central nervous system: An overview. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 66 (2–3):221–33. doi:10.1054/plef.2001.0360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, K. M., M. J. Carpenter, N. L. Baker, S. M. DeSantis, E. Kryway, K. J. Hartwell, A. L. McRae-Clark, and K. T. Brady. 2012. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine in cannabis-dependent adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry 169 (8):805–12. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinspoon, L. 1971. Marijuana reconsidered. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. http://marijuana-uses.com/mr-x/
   Google Scholar
• Gruber, S. A., J. Rogowska, and D. A. Yurgelun-Todd. 2009. Altered affective response in marijuana smokers: An FMRI study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 105 (1–2):139–53. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.06.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hajos, N., I. Katona, S. S. Naiem, K. MacKie, C. Ledent, I. Mody, and T. F. Freund. 2000. Cannabinoids inhibit hippocampal GABAergic transmission and network oscillations. The European Journal of Neuroscience 12 (9):3239–49. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00217.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, K. L., J. L. Winward, A. D. Schweinsburg, K. L. Medina, S. A. Brown, and S. F. Tapert. 2010. Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors 35 (11):970–76. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariri, A. R., A. Gorka, L. W. Hyde, M. Kimak, I. Halder, F. Ducci, R. E. Ferrell, D. Goldman, and S. B. Manuck. 2009. Divergent effects of genetic variation in endocannabinoid signaling on human threat- and reward-related brain function. Biological Psychiatry 66 (1):9–16. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herkenham, M., A. B. Lynn, M. D. Little, M. R. Johnson, L. S. Melvin, B. R. De Costa, and K. C. Rice. 1990. Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 87 (5):1932–36. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.5.1932.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, C. E., and A. Stevens. 2010. What can we learn from the Portuguese decriminalization of illicit drugs? British Journal of Criminology 50 (6):999–1022. doi:10.1093/bjc/azq038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, L. D., P. M. O’Malley, J. G. Bachman, J. E. Schulenberg, and R. A. Miech. 2014. Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2013: Volume I, Secondary school students. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol1_2013.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Katona, I., and T. F. Freund. 2008. Endocannabinoid signaling as a synaptic circuit breaker in neurological disease. Nature Medicine 14 (9):923–30. doi:10.1038/nm.f.1869.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katona, I., B. Sperlágh, Z. Maglóczky, E. Sántha, A. Köfalvi, S. Czirják, K. Mackie, E. S. Vizi, and T. F. Freund. 2000. GABAergic interneurons are the targets of cannabinoid actions in the human hippocampus. Neuroscience 100 (4):797–804. doi:10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00286-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levensky, E. R., A. Forcehimes, W. T. O’Donohue, and K. Beitz. 2007. Motivational interviewing: An evidence-based approach to counseling helps patients follow treatment recommendations. The American Journal of Nursing 107 (10):50–58; quiR8–59. doi:10.1097/01.NAJ.0000292202.06571.24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupica, C. R., A. C. Riegel, and A. F. Hoffman. 2004. Marijuana and cannabinoid regulation of brain reward circuits. British Journal of Pharmacology 143 (2):227–34. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsicano, G., C. T. Wotjak, S. C. Azad, T. Bisogno, G. Rammes, M. G. Cascio, H. Hermann, J. Tang, C. Hofmann, W. Zieglgänsberger, V. Di Marzo, and B. Lutz. 2002. The endogenous cannabinoid system controls extinction of aversive memories. Nature 418 (6897):530–34. doi:10.1038/nature00839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, B. J., R. Crean, V. Goodell, J. M. Light, S. Quello, F. Shadan, K. Buffkins, M. Kyle, M. Adusumalli, A. Begovic, and S. Rao. 2012. A proof-of-concept randomized controlled study of gabapentin: Effects on cannabis use, withdrawal and executive function deficits in cannabis-dependent adults. Neuropsychopharmacology 37 (7):1689–98. doi:10.1038/npp.2012.14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCambridge, J., and J. Strang. 2004. The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: Results from a multi-site cluster randomized trial. Addiction 99 (1):39–52. doi:10.1111/add.2004.99.issue-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCambridge, J., J. Strang, S. Platts, and J. Witton. 2003. Cannabis use and the GP: Brief motivational intervention increases clinical enquiry by GPs in a pilot study. The British Journal of General Practice 53 (493):637–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan, A. T., D. C. Lewis, C. P. O’Brien, and H. D. Kleber. 2000. Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: Implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation. JAMA 284 (13):1689–95. doi:10.1001/jama.284.13.1689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, K. L., K. L. Hanson, A. D. Schweinsburg, M. Cohen-Zion, B. J. Nagel, and S. F. Tapert. 2007. Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: Subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 13 (5):807–20. doi:10.1017/S1355617707071032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, W. R., and S. Rollnick. 2002. Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change. New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nahas, G. G., and A. Greenwood. 1974. The first report of the National Commission on Marihuana (1972): Signal of misunderstanding or exercise in ambiguity. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 50 (1):55–75.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nutt, D., L. A. King, W. Saulsbury, and C. Blakemore. 2007. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. The Lancet 369 (9566):1047–53. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palamar, J. J., D. C. Ompad, and E. Petkova. 2014. Correlates of intentions to use cannabis among US high school seniors in the case of cannabis legalization. International Journal of Drug Policy 25 (3):424–35. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.01.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2013. Marijuana: Changing attitudes. http://www.people-press.org/2013/04/04/marijuana-changing-attitudes/marijuana_slideshow/
   Google Scholar
• ProCon.org. 2015. 23 legal medical marijuana states and DC. http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000881
   Google Scholar
• Riedel, G., and S. N. Davies. 2005. Cannabinoid function in learning, memory and plasticity. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 168:445–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodriguez De Fonseca, F., I. Del Arco, J. L. Martín-Calderón, M. A. Gorriti, and M. Navarro. 1998. Role of the endogenous cannabinoid system in the regulation of motor activity. Neurobiology of Disease 5 (6 Pt B):483–501. doi:10.1006/nbdi.1998.0217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roffman, R., and R. S. Stephens. 2010. Cannabis dependence: Its nature, consequences and treatment. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Romero, J., F. Berrendero, J. Manzanares, A. Pérez, J. Corchero, J. A. Fuentes, J. J. Fernández-Ruiz, and J. A. Ramos. 1998. Time-course of the cannabinoid receptor down-regulation in the adult rat brain caused by repeated exposure to delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Synapse 30 (3):298–308. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2396(199811)30:3<298::AID-SYN7>3.0.CO;2-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanudo-Pena, M. C., J. Romero, G. E. Seale, J. J. Fernandez-Ruiz, and J. M. Walker. 2000. Activational role of cannabinoids on movement. European Journal of Pharmacology 391 (3):269–74. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00044-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scallet, A. C., E. Uemura, A. Andrews, S. F. Ali, D. E. McMillan, M. G. Paule, R. M. Brown, and W. Slikker Jr. 1987. Morphometric studies of the rat hippocampus following chronic delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Brain Research 436 (1):193–98. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(87)91576-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons-Morton, B., W. Pickett, W. Boyce, T. F. Ter Bogt, and W. Vollebergh. 2010. Cross-national comparison of adolescent drinking and cannabis use in the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands. International Journal of Drug Policy 21:64–69. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.02.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). 2013. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of national findings, NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Tanda, G., and S. R. Goldberg. 2003. Cannabinoids: Reward, dependence, and underlying neurochemical mechanisms–a review of recent preclinical data. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 169 (2):115–34. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1485-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Laere, K., K. Goffin, G. Bormans, C. Casteels, L. Mortelmans, J. De Hoon, I. Grachev, M. Vandenbulcke, and G. Pieters. 2009. Relationship of type 1 cannabinoid receptor availability in the human brain to novelty-seeking temperament. Archives of General Psychiatry 66 (2):196–204. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velasco, G., C. Sánchez, and M. Guzmán. 2012. Towards the use of cannabinoids as anti-tumour agents Nature Reviews Cancer 12 (6):436–444. http://www.medicinalgenomics.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Towards-the-use-of-cannabinoids-as-anti-tumor-agents1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Viveros, M. P., E. M. Marco, and S. E. File. 2005. Endocannabinoid system and stress and anxiety responses. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 81 (2):331–42. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2005.01.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesley, M. J., C. A. Hanlon, and L. J. Porrino. 2011. Poor decision-making by chronic marijuana users is associated with decreased functional responsiveness to negative consequences. Psychiatry Research 191 (1):51–59. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.10.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wikipedia contributors. 2015. Charlotte’s web (cannabis). Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charlotte%27s_web_(cannabis)&oldid=683273609
   Google Scholar
• Winters, K. C., and C. Y. Lee. 2008. Likelihood of developing an alcohol and cannabis use disorder during youth: Association with recent use and age. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 92 (1–3):239–47. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.08.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar