102
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Influence of Cognitive Factors on Sexual Assault Recovery: Descriptive Review and Methodological Concerns

, &
Pages 119-137 | Published online: 05 Nov 2010

  • Abramson , L. Y. , Metalsky , G. L. and Alloy , L. B. 1989 . Hopelessness depression: A theorybased subtype of depression . Psychological Review , 96 (2) : 358 – 372 .
  • Abramson , L. Y. , Seligman , M. E. P. and Teasdale , J. D. 1978 . Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 87 : 49 – 94 .
  • American Psychiatric Association . 1987 . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , (3rd ed., revised) , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association .
  • American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , (4th ed.) , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association .
  • Atkeson , B. M. , Calhoun , K. S. , Resick , P. and Ellis , E. M. 1982 . Victims of rape: Repeated assessment of depressive symptoms . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 50 : 96 – 101 .
  • Beck , A. T. 1978 . Beck Inventory , Philadelphia, PA : Center for Cognitive Therapy .
  • Beck , A. T. , Ward , C. , Mendolsohn , M. , Mock , J. and Erbaugh , J. 1961 . An inventory for measuring depression . Archives of General Psychiatry , 4 : 53 – 63 .
  • Becker , J. V. , Skinner , L. J. , Abel , G. G. , Axelrod , R. and Cichon , J. 1984 . Sexual problems of sexual assault survivors . Women and Health , 9 : 5 – 20 .
  • Becker , J. V. , Skinner , L. J. , Abel , G. G. and Cichon , J. 1986 . Level of post-assault functioning in rape and incest victims . Archives of Sexual Behavior , 15 : 37 – 49 .
  • Blake , D. D. , Weathers , F. W. , Nagy , L. M. , Kaloupek , D. G. , Klauminzer , G. , Chamey , D. S. and Keane , T. M. 1990 . A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS-1 . The Behavior Therapist , 13 : 187 – 188 .
  • Breslau , N. , Davis , G. C. , Andreski , P. and Peterson , E. 1991 . Traumatic events and Posttraumatic Stress !Disorder in an urban population of young adults . Archives of General Psychiatry , 48 : 216 – 222 .
  • Brewin , C. R. , MacCarthy , B. and Fumham , A. 1989 . Social support in the face of adversity: The role of cognitive appraisal . Journal of Research in Personality , 23 : 354 – 372 .
  • Brickman , J. and Briere , J. 1984 . Incidence of rape and sexual assault in an urban Canadian population . International Journal of Women Studies , 7 (3) : 195 – 206 .
  • Briere , J. and Runtz , M. 1989 . The Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC-33): Early data on a new scale . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 4 (2) : 151 – 163 .
  • Burt , M. R. 1980 . Cultural myths and supports for rape . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 38 (2) : 217 – 230 .
  • Calhoun , K. S. , Atkeson , B. M. and Resick , P. A. 1982 . A longitudinal examination of fear reactions in victims of rape . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 29 (6) : 655 – 661 .
  • Cassiday , K. L. and McNaIIy , R. J. 1992 . “ The Impact of Event Scale-Revised for assessing rape victims with post-traumatic stress disorder ” . In Innovations in clinical practice: A source book , Edited by: VandeCreek , L. , Knapp , S. and Jackson , T. L. 325 – 333 . Sarasota, FL : Professional Resource .
  • Dansky , B. S. , Roth , S. and Kronenberger , W. G. 1990 . The Trauma Constellation Identification Scale: A measure of the psychological impact of a stressful life event . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 5 (4) : 557 – 572 .
  • Derogatis , L. 1977 . Manual for the SCL-90 , Baltimore : Johns Hopkins School of Medicine .
  • Derogatis , L. , Lipman , R. , Rickels , K. , Uhlenhuth , E. and Covi , L. 1974 . The Hopkins Symptom Cheklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory . Behavioral Science , 19 : 1 – 15 .
  • Dohrenwend , B. P. , Shrout , P. E. , Egri , G. and Mendelsohn , F. S. 1980 . Nonspecific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology . Archives of General Psychiatry , 37 : 1229 – 1236 .
  • Ellis , E. M. , Atkeson , B. M. and Calhoun , K. S. 1981 . An assessment of long term reactions to rape . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 90 : 263 – 266 .
  • Falsetti , S. A. and Resick , P. A. 1995 . Causal attributions, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of crime . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 25 (12) : 1027 – 1042 .
  • Finkelhor , D. 1979 . Sexually victimized children , New York : Free Press .
  • Flannery , R. B. 1990 . Social support and psychological trauma: A methodological review . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 3 : 593 – 612 .
  • Foa , E. B. and Kozak , M. J. 1986 . Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information . Psychological Bulletin , 99 : 20 – 35 .
  • Foa , E. B. , Riggs , D. S. , Dancu , C. V. and Rothbaum , B. O. 1991 . “ Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder ” . Unpublished manuscript
  • Foa , E. B. , Riggs , D. S. , Dancu , C. V. and Rothbaum , B. O. 1993 . Reliability of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 6 : 459 – 473 .
  • Foa , E. B. and Rothbaum , B. O. 1998 . Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD , New York : Guilford Press .
  • Foa , E. B. , Steketee , G. and Rothbaum , B. O. 1989 . Behavioral-cognitive conceptualizations of posttraumatic stress disorder . Behavior Therapy , 20 : 155 – 176 .
  • Foa , E. B. , Zinbarg , R. and Rothbaum , B. 1992 . Uncontrollability and unpredictability in posttraumatic stress disorder: An animal model . Psychological Bulletin , 112 (2) : 218 – 238 .
  • Försterling , F. 1985 . Attributional retraining: A review . Psychological Bulletin , 98 (3) : 495 – 512 .
  • Foy , D. W. , Carroll , E. M. and Donahoe , C. P. 1987 . Etiological factors in the development of PTSD in clinical samples of Vietnam combat veterans . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 43 : 17 – 27 .
  • Frank , E. and Stewart , B. D. 1984 . Depressive symptoms in rape victims: A revisit . Journal of Affective Disorders , 7 : 77 – 85 .
  • Frazier , P. A. 1990 . Victim attributions and postrape trauma . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 (2) : 298 – 304 .
  • Frazier , P. A. and Schauben , L. 1994 . Causal attributions and recovery from rape and other stressful life events . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychological , 13 (1) : 1 – 14 .
  • Giaconia , R. M. , Reinherz , H. Z. , Silverman , A. B. , Pakiz , B. , Frost , A. and Cohen , E. 1995 . Traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder in a community population of older adolescents . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 34 (10) : 1369 – 1380 .
  • Gidycz , C. A. , Coble , C. N. , Latham , L. and Layman , M. J. 1993 . A sexual assault experience in adulthood and prior victimization experiences: A prospective analysis . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 17 : 151 – 168 .
  • Gidycz , C. A. , Hanson , K. and Layman , M. J. 1995 . A prospective analysis of the relationships among sexual assault experiences: An extension of previous findings . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 19 : 5 – 29 .
  • Gidycz , C. A. and Koss , M. P. 1991 . Predictors of long-term sexual assault trauma among a national sample of victimized college women . Violence and Victims , 0 (3) : 175 – 190 .
  • Gilmartin-Zena , P. 1985 . Rape impact: Immediately and two months later . Deviant Behavior , 6 : 347 – 361 .
  • Glover , H. 1984 . Survival guilt and the Vietnam veteran . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 172 : 393 – 397 .
  • Gold , E. R. 1986 . Long-term effects of sexual victimization in childhood: An attributional approach . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 54 (4) : 471 – 475 .
  • Gold , S. R. , Milan , L. D. , Mayall , A. and Johnson , A. E. 1994 . A cross-validation study of the Trauma-Symptom Checklist: The role of mediating variables . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 9 : 12 – 26 .
  • Golding , J. M. , Siegel , J. M. , Sorenson , S. B. , Burnam , M. A. and Stein , J. A. 1989 . Social support sources following sexual assault . Journal of Community Psychology , 17 : 92 – 107 .
  • Green , B. L. , Wilson , J. P. and Lindy , J. D. 1985 . “ Conceptualizing posttraumatic stress disorder: A psychosocial framework ” . In Trauma and its wake: Vol. 1: The study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder , Edited by: Figley , C. R. Vol. 1 , New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Hanson , R. K. 1990 . The psychological impact of sexual assault on women and children: A review . Annals of Sex Research , 3 : 187 – 232 .
  • Helmreich , R. and Stapp , J. 1974 . Short form of the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI): An objective measure of self-esteem . Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society , 4 : 473 – 475 .
  • Hill , J. L. and Zautra , A. J. 1989 . Self-blame and unique vulnerability as predictors of post-rape demoralization . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 8 (4) : 368 – 375 .
  • Horowitz , M. J. 1993 . “ Stress-response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic stress and adjustment disorders ” . In International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes , Edited by: Wilson , J. P. and Raphael , B. 49 – 60 . New York : Plenum .
  • Horowitz , M. , Wilner , N. and Alvarez , W. 1979 . Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress . Psychosomatic Medicine , 41 (3) : 209 – 218 .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1979 . Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 : 1798 – 1809 .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1985 . “ The aftermath of victimization: Rebuilding shattered assumptions ” . In Trauma and its wake, vol. 1: The study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder , Edited by: Figley , C. R. vol. 1 , New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1989 . The benefits of illusions, the threat of disillusionment and the limitations of inaccuracy . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 8 : 158 – 175 .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1992 . Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma , New York : Free Press .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. and Wortman , C. B. 1977 . Attributions of blame and coping in the "real world": Severe accident victims react to their lot . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 35 : 351 – 353 .
  • Jensen , I. W. and Gutek , B. A. 1982 . Attributions and assignments of responsibility in sexual harassment . Journal of Social Issues , 38 : 121 – 136 .
  • Joseph , S. A. , Brewin , C. R. , Yule , W. and Williams , R. 1991 . Causal attributions and psychiatric symptoms in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster . British Journal of Psychiatry , 159 : 542 – 546 .
  • Joseph , S. A. , Brewin , C. R. , Yule , W. and Williams , R. 1993 . Causal attributions and post-traumatic stress in adolescents . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines , 34 (2) : 247 – 253 .
  • Joseph , S. A. , Williams , R. and Yule , W. 1993 . Changes in outlook following disaster: The preliminary development of a measure to assess positive and negative responses . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 6 (2) : 271 – 279 .
  • Joseph , S. A. , Williams , R. and Yule , W. 1995 . Psychosocial perspectives on post-traumatic stress . Clinical Psychology Review , 75 (6) : 515 – 544 .
  • Joseph , S. A. , Yule , W. and Williams , R. 1993 . Post-traumatic stress: Attributional aspects . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 5 (4) : 501 – 513 .
  • Kessler , R. C. , Sonnega , A. , Bromet , E. , Hughes , M. and Nelson , C. B. 1995 . Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national Comorbidity Survey . Archives of General Psychiatry , 52 : 1048 – 1060 .
  • Kilpatrick , D. G. 1988 . “ Rape Aftermath Symptom Test ” . In Dictionary of behavioral assessment techniques , Edited by: Hersen , M. and Bellack , A. S. 366 – 367 . Oxford : Pergamon Press .
  • Kilpatrick , D. G. , Resick , P. and Veronen , L. J. 1981 . Effects of a rape experience: A longitudinal study . Journal of Social Issues , 37 : 105 – 122 .
  • Kilpatrick , D. G. , Saunders , B. , Amick-McMullan , A. E. , Best , C. L. , Veronen , L. J. and Resnick , H. 1989 . Victim and crime factors associated with the development of posttraumatic stress disorder . Behavior Therapy , 20 : 199 – 214 .
  • Kilpatrick , D. G. , Veronen , L. J. and Best , C. L. 1985 . “ Factors predicting psychological distress among rape victims ” . In Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder , Edited by: Figley , C. R. New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Koss , M. P. , Gidycz , C. A. and Wisniewski , N. 1987 . The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 55 : 162 – 170 .
  • Koss , M. and Oros , C. 1982 . Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 50 : 455 – 457 .
  • Kubany , E. S. 1994 . A cognitive model of guilt typology in combat-related PTSD . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 8 : 3 – 19 .
  • Kushner , M. G. , Riggs , D. S. , Foa , E. B. and Miller , S. M. 1992 . Perceived controllability and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in crime victims . Behavioral Research and Therapy , 31 (1) : 105 – 110 .
  • Lemer , M. J. and Simmons , C. 1966 . Observer's reaction to the "innocent victim": Compassion or rejection? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 4 : 203 – 210 .
  • Libow , J. A. and Doty , D. W. 1979 . An exploratory approach to self-blame and self-derogation by rape victims . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 49 (4) : 670 – 679 .
  • McCann , I. L. and Pearlman , L. A. 1990 . “ McPearl Belief Scale ” . South Windsor, CT : Traumatic Stress Institute . Unpublished manuscript,
  • McCann , I. L. , Sakheim , D. K. and Abrahamson , D. J. 1988 . Trauma and victimization: A model of psychological adaptation . The Counseling Psychologist , 16 : 531 – 594 .
  • McCarthy , B. W. 1986 . A cognitive-behavioral approach to understanding and treating sexual trauma . Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy , 12 (4) : 322 – 329 .
  • McCormick , R. A. , Taber , J. and Kruedelbach , N. 1989 . The relationship between attributional style and post-traumatic stress disorder in addicted patients . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 2 : 477 – 487 .
  • McFarlane , A. C. PTSD in a national survey of the United States: Results and future directions . Paper presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies . Montréal, Canada.
  • Meyer , C. B. and Taylor , S. E. 1986 . Adjustment to rape . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50 (6) : 1226 – 1234 .
  • Mikulincer , M. and Solomon , Z. 1988 . Attributional style and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 97 (3) : 308 – 313 .
  • Nadelson , C. , Notman , M. , Zackson , H. and Gornick , J. 1982 . A follow-up study of rape victims . American Journal of Psychiatry , 139 : 1266 – 1270 .
  • Najavits , L. M. , Weiss , R. D. and Liese , B. S. 1996 . Group cognitive-behavioral therapy for women with PTSD and substance use disorder . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 13 (1) : 13 – 22 .
  • Norris , F. H. 1992 . Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 60 (3) : 409 – 418 .
  • Morris , F. H. 1996 . “ Designing trauma studies: Basic principles ” . In Trauma Research Methodology , Edited by: Carlson , E. B. 22 – 55 . Lutherville, MA : Sydran Press .
  • Peterson , C. , Semmel , A. , von Baeyer , C. , Abramson , L. Y. , Metalsky , G. I. and Seligman , M. E. P. 1982 . The Attributional Style Questionnaire . Cognitive Therapy and Research , 6 (3) : 287 – 300 .
  • Peterson , C. and Villanova , P. 1988 . An Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 97 : 87 – 89 .
  • Pitman , R. , Altaian , B. and Macklin , M. 1989 . Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in wounded Vietnam veterans . American Journal of Psychiatry , 146 : 667 – 669 .
  • Resick , P. , Calhoun , K. , Atkeson , B. and Ellis , E. 1981 . Social adjustment in victims of sexual assault . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 5 : 705 – 712 .
  • Resick , P. , Jordan , C. , Girelli , S. , Hutter , C. and Marhoefer-Dvorak , S. 1988 . A comparative outcome study of behavioral group therapy for sexual assault victims . Behavior Therapy , 19 : 385 – 401 .
  • Resick , P. A. and Schnicke , M. K. 1993 . Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual , Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
  • Resick , P. A. , Schnicke , M. K. and Markway , B. G. The relationship between cognitive content and posttraumatic stress disorder . Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy . New York, NY.
  • Resnick , H. S. , Kilpatrick , D. G. , Dansky , B. S. , Saunders , B. E. and Best , C. L. 1993 . Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 61 (6) : 984 – 991 .
  • Resnick , H. S. , Kilpatrick , D. G. and Lipovsky , J. A. 1991 . Assessment of rape-related PTSD: Stressor and symptom dimensions . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 3 (4) : 561 – 572 .
  • Robins , L. N. , Heizer , J. E. , Croughan , J. and Ratcliff , K. S. 1981 . National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity . Archives of General Psychiatry , 38 : 381 – 389 .
  • Rothbaum , B. O. , Foa , E. B. , Riggs , D. S. , Murdock , T. B. and Walsh , W. 1992 . A prospective examination of PTSD in rape victims . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 5 (3) : 455 – 475 .
  • Rotter , J. 1966 . Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement . Psychological Monographs , 80 : 1 – 28 .
  • Rubin , Z. and Peplau , L. A. 1973 . Belief in a just world and reactions to another's lot: A study of participants in the national draft lottery . Journal of Social Issues , 29 (4) : 73 – 93 .
  • Ruch , L. O. and Chandler , S. M. 1983 . Sexual assault trauma during the acute phase: An exploratory model and multivariate analysis . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 24 : 174 – 185 .
  • Russell , D. 1982 . The causal dimension scale: A measure of how individuals perceive causes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42 (6) : 1137 – 1145 .
  • Shalev , A. Y. , Bonne , O. and Spencer , E. 1996 . Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A review . Psychosomatic Medicine , 58 : 165 – 182 .
  • Smith , E. M. 1996 . “ Coping with the challenges of field research ” . In Trauma Reseach Methodology , Edited by: Carlson , E. B. 126 – 152 . Lutherville, MA : Sydran Press .
  • Solomon , S. D. , Keane , T. M. , Newman , E. and Kaloupek , D. G. 1996 . “ Choosing self-report measures and structures interviews ” . In Trauma Research Methodology , Edited by: Carlson , E. B. 56 – 81 . Lutherville, MA : Sydran Press .
  • Solomon , Z. and Mikulincer , M. 1990 . Life events and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: The intervening role of locus of control and social support . Military Psychology , 2 (4) : 241 – 256 .
  • Solomon , Z. , Mikulincer , M. and Avitzur , E. 1988 . Coping, locus of control, social support and combat related posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective study . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 (2) : 279 – 285 .
  • Spielberger , C. D. , Gorsuch , R. L. and Lushene , R. E. 1970 . Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (self-evaluation questionnaire) , PaIo Alto, CA : Consulting Psychologists Press .
  • Spitzer , R. L. , Williams , J. B. and Gibbon , M. 1987 . Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Non-patient Version (SCID-NP-V) , New York : New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department .
  • Stone , A. M. 1992 . The role of shame in posttraumatic stress disorder . American Orthopsychiatric Association , 62 : 131 – 136 .
  • Stratton , P. , Heard , D. , Hanks , H. G. I. , Munton , A. G. , Brewin , C. R. and Davidson , C. 1986 . Coding causal beliefs in natural discourse . British Journal of Social Psychology , 25 : 299 – 313 .
  • Taylor , S. E. 1983 . Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation . American Psychologist , 38 : 1161 – 1173 .
  • Thomton , B. , Ryckman , R. , Kirchner , G. , Jacobs , J. , Kaczor , L. and Kuehnel , R. 1988 . Reaction to self-attributed victim responsibility: A comparative analysis of rape crisis counsellors and lay observers . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 18 : 409 – 422 .
  • Tumquist , D. C. , Harvey , J. H. and Anderson , B. L. 1988 . Attributions and adjustment to lifethreatening illness . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 27 : 55 – 65 .
  • Ullman , S. E. 1996 . Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 20 : 505 – 526 .
  • Valentiner , D. P. , Foa , E. B. , Riggs , D. S. and Gershuny , B. S. 1996 . Coping strategies and posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of sexual and nonsexual assault . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 105 (3) : 455 – 458 .
  • Watson , C. G. 1990 . Psychometric posttraumatic stress disorder measurement techniques: A review . Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 2 (4) : 460 – 469 .
  • Weaver , T. L. and Clum , G. A. 1995 . Psychological distress associated with interpersonal violence: A meta-analysis . Clinical Psychological Review , 15 (2) : 115 – 140 .
  • Weiner , B. 1985 . An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion . Psychological Review , 92 (4) : 548 – 573 .
  • Weiss , D. S. 1993 . “ Structured Clinical Interview Techniques ” . In International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes , Edited by: Wilson , J. P. and Raphael , B. 179 – 187 . New York : Plenum .
  • Wenninger , K. and Ehlers , A. 1998 . Dysfunctional cognitions and adult psychological functioning in child sexual abuse survivors . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 (2) : 281 – 300 .
  • Wirtz , P. W. and Harrell , A. V. 1987 . Victim and crime characteristics, coping responses and short and long-term recovery from victimization . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 55 : 866 – 891 .
  • Wong , P. T. P. and Weiner , B. 1981 . When people ask "why" questions and the heuristics of attributional research . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 40 (4) : 650 – 663 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.