Accelerated atherosclerosis in inflammatory rheumatic diseases

References

• Lopez AD, Murray CC. The global burden of disease, 1990-2020. Nat Med 1998;4:1241–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urowitz MB, Bookman AA, Koehler BE, Gordon DA, Smythe HA, Ogryzlo MA. The bimodal mortality pattern of systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 1976;60:221–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonsson H, Nived 0, Sturfelt G. Outcome in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study of patients from a defined population. Medicine (Baltimore) 1989;68: 141–50.
   Google Scholar
• Ward MM. Premature morbidity from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42:338–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thorburn CM, Ward MM. Hospitalizations for coronary artery disease among patients with systemic lupus erythema-tosus. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:2519–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manzi S, Meilahn EN, Rairie JE, Conte CG, Medsger TA, Jr, Jansen-McWilliams L, et al. Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:408–15.
   Google Scholar
• Van Doornum S, McColl G, Wicks IP. Accelerated athero-sclerosis: an extraarticular feature of rheumatoid arthritis? Arthritis Rheum 2002;46:862–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutru 0, Laakso M, Isomaki H, Koota K. Cardiovascular mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Cardiology 1989;76:71–7.
   Google Scholar
• Myllykangas-Luosujarvi R, Aho K, Kautiainen H, Isomaki H. Cardiovascular mortality in women with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1995;22:1065–7.
   Google Scholar
• Wallberg-Jonsson S, Ohman ML, Dahlqvist SR. Cardiovas-cular morbidity and mortality in patients with seropositive rheumatoid arthritis in Northern Sweden. J Rheumatol 1997;24:445–51.
   Google Scholar
• Goodson NJ, Wiles NJ, Lunt M, Barrett EM, Silman AJ, Symmons DP. Mortality in early inflammatory polyarthritis: cardiovascular mortality is increased in seropositive patients. Arthritis Rheum 2002;46:2010–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon DH, Karlson EW, Rimm EB, Cannuscio CC, Mandl LA, Manson JE, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in women diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2003;107:1303–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glagov S, Weisenberg E, Zarins CK, Stankunavicius R, Kolettis GJ. Compensatory enlargement of human athero-sclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1371–5.
   Google Scholar
• Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease. Circulation 2000;101: 1899–1906.
   Google Scholar
• Raitakari OT, Celermajer DS. Flow-mediated dilatation. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2000;50:397–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD, Meredith IT, Knab S, Delagrange D, et al. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1235–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima DS, Sato El, Lima VC, Miranda F, Jr, Hatta FH. Brachial endothelial function is impaired in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2002;29: 292–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajagopalan S, Somers EC, Brook RD, Kehrer C, Pfenninger D, Lewis E, et al. Endothelial cell apoptosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: a common pathway for abnormal vas-cular function and thrombosis propensity. Blood 2004;103: 3677–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergholm R, Leirisalo-Repo M, Vehkavaara S, Makimattila S, Taskinen MR, Yki-Jarvinen H. Impaired responsiveness to NO in newly diagnosed patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002;22:1637–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansel S, Lassig G, Pistrosch F, Passauer J. Endothelial dysfunction in young patients with long-term rheumatoid arthritis and low disease activity. Atherosclerosis 2003;170: 177–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaudo G, Marchesi S, Gerli R, Allegrucci R, Giordano A, Siepi D, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in young patients with rheumatoid arthritis and low disease activity. Ann Rheum Dis 2004;63:31–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers JC, Haskard DO, Kooner JS. Vascular endothelial function and oxidative stress mechanisms in patients with Behcet's syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:517–20.
   Google Scholar
• Filer AD, Gardner-Medwin JM, Thambyrajah J, Raza K, Carruthers DM, Stevens RJ, et al. Diffuse endothelial dysfunction is common to ANCA associated systemic vasculitis and polyarteritis nodosa. Ann Rheum Dis 2003;62: 162–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth AD, Jayne DR, Kharbanda RK, McEniery CM, Mackenzie IS, Brown J, et al. Infliximab improves endothelial dysfunction in systemic vasculitis: a model of vascular inflammation. Circulation 2004;109:1718–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hingorani AD, Cross J, Kharbanda RK, Mullen MJ, Bhagat K, Taylor M, et al. Acute systemic inflammation impairs endothelium-dependent dilatation in humans. Circulation 2000;102:994–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhagat K, Vallance P. Inflammatory cytokines impair endothelium-dependent dilatation in human veins in vivo. Circulation 1997;96:3042–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raza K, Thambyrajah J, Townend JN, Exley AR, Hortas C, Filer A, et al. Suppression of inflammation in primary systemic vasculitis restores vascular endothelial function: lessons for atherosclerotic disease? Circulation 2000;102: 1470–2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hurlimann D, Forster A, Noll G, Enseleit F, Chenevard R, Distler 0, et al. Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2002;106:2184–7.
   Google Scholar
• van Popele NM, Grobbee DE, Bots ML, Asmar R, Topouchian J, Reneman RS, et al. Association between arterial stiffness and atherosclerosis: the Rotterdam Study. Stroke 2001;32:454–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R, Gautier I, Laloux B, Guize L, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001;37:1236–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutouyrie P, Tropeano Al, Asmar R, Gautier I, Benetos A, Lacolley P, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of primary coronary events in hypertensive patients: a longitudinal study. Hypertension 2002;39:10–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams MR, Robinson J, McCredie R, Seale JP, Sorensen KE, Deanfield JE, et al. Smooth muscle dysfunction occurs independently of impaired endothelium-dependent dilation in adults at risk of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32:123–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raitakari OT, Seale JP, Celermajer DS. Impaired vascular responses to nitroglycerin in subjects with coronary athero-sclerosis. Am J Cardiol 2001;87:217-9,A8.
   Google Scholar
• Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Fitzgerald S, Tracy R, Kuller L, Manzi S. Vascular stiffness in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Hypertension 2001;37:1075–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Doornum S, McColl G, Jenkins A, Green DJ, Wicks IP. Screening for atherosclerosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Comparison of two in vivo tests of vascular function. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:72–80.
   Google Scholar
• Wong M, Toh L, Wilson A, Rowley K, Karschimkus C, Prior D, et al. Reduced arterial elasticity in rheumatoid arthritis and the relationship to vascular disease risk factors and inflam-mation. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:81–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth AD, Wallace S, McEniery CM, Yasmin, Brown J, Jayne DR, et al. Inflammation and arterial stiffness in systemic vasculitis: a model of vascular inflammation. Arthritis Rheum 2004;50:581–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzi S, Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Fitzgerald SG, Rairie JE, Tracy RP, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of carotid plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42:51–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Fitzgerald SG, Pratt JE, Tracy RP, Kuller LH, et al. Comparison of risk factors for vascular disease in the carotid artery and aorta in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2004;50:151–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlachoyiannopoulos PG, Kanellopoulos PG, Ioannidis JP, Tektonidou MG, Mastorakou I, Moutsopoulos HM. Athero-sclerosis in premenopausal women with antiphospholipid syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus: a controlled study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003;42:645–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roman MJ, Shanker BA, Davis A, Lockshin MD, Sammaritano L, Simantov R, et al. Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 2003;349:2399–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svenungsson E, Jensen-Urstad K, Heimburger M, Silveira A, Hamsten A, de Faire U, et al. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Circulation 2001; 104:1887–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonsson SW, Backman C, Johnson 0, Karp K, Lundstrom E, Sundqvist KG, et al. Increased prevalence of atherosclerosis in patients with medium term rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2001;28:2597–602.
   Google Scholar
• Park YB, Ahn CW, Choi HK, Lee SH, In BH, Lee HC, et al. Atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis: morphologic evidence obtained by carotid ultrasound. Arthritis Rheum 2002;46: 1714–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alkaabi JK, Ho M, Levison R, Pullar T, Belch JJ. Rheumatoid arthritis and macrovascular disease. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003;42:292–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumeda Y, Inaba M, Goto H, Nagata M, Henmi Y, Furumitsu Y, et al. Increased thickness of the arterial intima-media detected by ultrasonography in patients with rheuma-toid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2002;46:1489–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata-Sakurai M, Inaba M, Goto H, Kumeda Y, Furumitsu Y, Inui K, et al. Inflammation and bone resorption as independent factors of accelerated arterial wall thickening in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:3061–7.
   Google Scholar
• Asanuma Y, Oeser A, Shintani AK, Turner E, Olsen N, Fazio S, et al. Premature coronary-artery atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 2003;349:2407–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petri M, Perez-Gutthann S, Spence D, Hochberg MC. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 1992;93:513–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petri M, Roubenoff R, Dallal GE, Nadeau MR, Selhub J, Rosenberg IR. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1996;348:1120–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doria A, Shoenfeld Y, Wu R, Gambari PF, Puato M, Ghirardello A, et al. Risk factors for subclinical athero-sclerosis in a prospective cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2003;62:1071–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce IN, Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Ibanez D, Steiner G. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: the Toronto Risk Factor Study. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:3159–67.
   Google Scholar
• Esdaile JM, Abrahamowicz M, Grodzicky T, Li Y, Panaritis C, du Berger R, Cite R, et al. Traditional Framingham risk factors fail to fully account for accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44: 2331–7.
   Google Scholar
• Petri M. Detection of coronary artery disease and the role of traditional risk factors in the Hopkins Lupus Cohort. Lupus 2000;9:170–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEntegart A, Capell HA, Creran D, Rumley A, Woodward M, Lowe GD. Cardiovascular risk factors, including throm-botic variables, in a population with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001;40:640–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cistemas M, Gutierrez MA, Klaassen J, Acosta AM, Jacobelli S. Cardiovascular risk factors in Chilean patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2002;29:1619–22.
   Google Scholar
• del Rincon ID, Williams K, Stem MP, Freeman GL, Escalante A. High incidence of cardiovascular events in a rheumatoid arthritis cohort not explained by traditional cardiac risk factors. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44:2737–45.
   Google Scholar
• del Rincon I, Williams K, Stem MP, Freeman GL, O'Leary DH, Escalante A. Association between carotid atherosclerosis and markers of inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis patients and healthy subjects. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:1833–40.
   Google Scholar
• Danesh J, Whincup P, Walker M, Lennon L, Thomson A, Appleby P, et al. Low grade inflammation and coronary heart disease: prospective study and updated meta-analyses. Br Med J 2000;321:199–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker PM. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: potential adjunct for global risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2001;103:1813–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malik I, Danesh J, Whincup P, Bhatia V, Papacosta 0, Walker M, et al. Soluble adhesion molecules and prediction of coronary heart disease: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Lancet 2001;358: 971–5.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang R, Brennan ML, Fu X, Aviles RJ, Pearce GL, Penn MS, et al. Association between myeloperoxidase levels and risk of coronary artery disease. JAMA 2001;286:2136–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1999;340:115–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams KJ, Tabas I. The response-to-retention hypothesis of atherogenesis reinforced. Curr Opin Lipidol 1998;9:471–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skalen K, Gustafsson M, Rydberg EK, Hulten LM, Wiklund 0, Innerarity TL, et al. Subendothelial retention of athero-genic lipoproteins in early atherosclerosis. Nature 2002;417: 750–4.
   Google Scholar
• van der Wal AC, Becker AE, van der Loos CM, Das PK. Site of intimal rupture or erosion of thrombosed coronary atherosclerotic plaques is characterized by an inflammatory process irrespective of the dominant plaque morphology. Circulation 1994;89:36–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle JJ. Association of coronary plaque rupture and atherosclerotic inflammation. J Pathol 1997;181:93–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naghavi M, Libby P, Falk E, Casscells SW, Litovsky S, Rumberger J, et al. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part I. Circulation 2003;108:1664–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naghavi M, Libby P, Falk E, Casscells SW, Litovsky S, Rumberger J, et al. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part II. Circulation 2003;108:1772–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khovidhunkit W, Kim MS, Memon RA, Shigenaga JK, Moser AH, Feingold KR, et al. Effects of infection and inflammation on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism: Mechanisms and consequences to the host. J Lipid Res 2004; 45:1169–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattar N, McCarey DW, Cape H, McInnes IB. Explaining how "high-grade" systemic inflammation accelerates vas-cular risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2003;108: 2957–63.
   Google Scholar
• Borba EF, Bonfa E. Dyslipoproteinemias in systemic lupus erythematosus: influence of disease, activity, and anticardio-lipin antibodies. Lupus 1997;6:533–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borba EF, Bonfa E, Vinagre CG, Ramires JA, Maranhao RC. Chylomicron metabolism is markedly altered in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43:1033–40.
   Google Scholar
• Hurt-Camejo E, Paredes S, Masana L, Camejo G, Sartipy P, Rosengren B, et al. Elevated levels of small, low-density lipoprotein with high affinity for arterial matrix components in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: possible contribution of phospholipase A2 to this atherogenic profile. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44: 2761–7.
   Google Scholar
• Asanuma Y, Kawai S, Aoshima H, Kaburaki J, Mizushima Y. Serum lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42: 443–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danesh J, Collins R, Peto R. Lipoprotein(a) and coronary heart disease. Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circula-tion 2000;102:1082–5.
   Google Scholar
• Borba EF, Santos RD, Bonfa E, Vinagre CG, Pileggi FJ, Cossermelli W, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1994;21:220–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park YB, Lee SK, Lee WK, Suh CH, Lee CW, Lee CH, et al. Lipid profiles in untreated patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1999;26:1701–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paolisso G, Valentini G, Giugliano D, Marrazzo G, Tirri R, Gallo M, et al. Evidence for peripheral impaired glucose handling in patients with connective tissue diseases. Metabo-lism 1991;40:902–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rask-Madsen C, Dominguez H, Ihlemann N, Hermann T, Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibits insulin's stimulating effect on glucose uptake and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in humans. Circulation 2003;108:1815–21.
   Google Scholar
• Ohara Y, Peterson TE, Harrison DG. Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J Clin Invest 1993;91:2546–51.
   Google Scholar
• Abu-Soud HM, Hazen SL. Nitric oxide is a physiological substrate for mammalian peroxidases. J Biol Chem 2000;275: 37524–32.
   Google Scholar
• Griendling KK, FitzGerald GA. Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: Part I: basic mechanisms and in vivo monitoring of ROS. Circulation 2003;108:1912–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzik TJ, West NE, Black E, McDonald D, Ratnatunga C, Pillai R, et al. Vascular superoxide production by NAD(P)H oxidase: association with endothelial dysfunction and clinical risk factors. Circ Res 2000;86:E85–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li JM, Mullen AM, Yun S, Wientjes F, Brouns GY, Thrasher AJ, et al. Essential role of the NADPH oxidase subunit p47(phox) in endothelial cell superoxide production in response to phorbol ester and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Circ Res 2002;90:143–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ames PR, Alves J, Murat I, Isenberg DA, Nourooz-Zadeh J. Oxidative stress in systemic lupus erythematosus and allied conditions with vascular involvement. Rheumatology (Oxford) 1999;38:529–34.
   Google Scholar
• Sadrzadeh SM, Graf E, Panter SS, Hallaway PE, Eaton JW. Hemoglobin. A biologic fenton reagent. J Biol Chem 1984; 259:14354–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratico D, Ferro D, Iuliano L, Rokach J, Conti F, Valesini G, et al. Ongoing prothrombotic state in patients with antiphos-pholipid antibodies: a role for increased lipid peroxidation. Blood 1999;93:3401–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huo Y, Ley K. Adhesion molecules and atherogenesis. Acta Physiol Scand 2001;173:35–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sheikh S, Rainger GE, Gale Z, Rahman M, Nash GB. Exposure to fluid shear stress modulates the ability of endothelial cells to recruit neutrophils in response to tumor necrosis factor-alpha: a basis for local variations in vascular sensitivity to inflammation. Blood 2003;102:2828–34.
   Google Scholar
• Surapisitchat J, Hoefen RJ, Pi X, Yoshizumi M, Yan C, Berk BC. Fluid shear stress inhibits TNF-alpha activation of JNK but not ERK1/2 or p38 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells: Inhibitory crosstalk among MAPK family members. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98: 6476–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hajra L, Evans Al, Chen M, Hyduk SJ, Collins T, Cybulsky MI. The NF-kB signal tranduction pathway in aortic endothelial cells is primed for activation in regions predis-posed to atherosclerotic lesion formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;97:9052–7.
   Google Scholar
• Maury CPJ, Teppo A-M. Tumor necrosis factor in the serum of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1989;32:146–50.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wellicome SM, Thomhill MH, Pitzalis C, Thomas DS, Lanchbury JSS, Panayi GS, et al. A monoclonal antibody that detects a novel antigen on endothelial cells that is induced by tumor necrosis factor, IL-1 or lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol 1990;144:2558–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belmont HM, Abramson SB, Lie JT. Pathology and pathogenesis of vascular injury in systemic lupus erythema-tosus. Interactions of inflammatory cells and activated endothelium. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:9–22.
   Google Scholar
• Khreiss T, Jozsef L, Potempa LA, Filep JG. Conformational rearrangement in C-reactive protein is required for proin-flammatory actions on human endothelial cells. Circulation 2004;109:2016–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simantov R, LaSala JM, Lo SK, Gharavi AE, Sammaritano LR, Salmon JE, et al. Activation of cultured vascular endothelial cells by anti-phospholipid antibodies. J Clin Invest 1995;96:2211–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvalho D, Savage CO, Isenberg D, Pearson JD. IgG anti-endothelial cell autoantibodies from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or systemic vasculitis stimulate the release of two endothelial cell-derived mediators, which enhance adhesion molecule expression and leukocyte adhesion in an autocrine manner. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42: 631–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papa ND, Raschi E, Moroni G, Panzeri P, Borghi MO, Ponticelli C. Anti-endothelial cell IgG fractions from systemic lupus erythematosus patients bind to human endothelial cells and induce a pro-adhesive and a pro-inflammatory phenotype in vitro. Lupus 1999;8:423–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tedesco F, Pausa M, Nardon E, Introna M, Mantovani A, Dobrina A. The cytolytically inactive terminal complement complex activates endothelial cells to express adhesion molecules and tissue factor procoagulant activity. J Exp Med 1997;185:1619–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimmeler S, Hermann C, Zeiher AM. Apoptosis of endothelial cells. Contribution to the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis? Eur Cytokine Netw 1998;9:697–8.
   Google Scholar
• Tricot 0, Mallat Z, Heymes C, Belmin J, Leseche G, Tedgui A. Relation between endothelial cell apoptosis and blood flow direction in human atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation 2000;101:2450–3.
   Google Scholar
• Asai K, Kudej RK, Shen YT, Yang GP, Takagi G, Kudej AB. Peripheral vascular endothelial dysfunction and apop-tosis in old monkeys. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20:1493–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bombeli T, Karsan A, Tait JF, Harlan JM. Apoptotic vascular endothelial cells become procoagulant. Blood 1997;89:2429–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedgui A, Mallat Z. Apoptosis as a determinant of atherothrombosis. Thromb Haemost 2001;86:420–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aicher A, Heeschen C, Mildner-Rihm C, Urbich C, Ihling C, Technau-Ihling K, et al. Essential role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase for mobilization of stem and progenitor cells. Nat Med 2003;9:1370–6.
   Google Scholar
• Hill JM, Zalos G, Halcox JP, Schenke WH, Waclawiw MA, Quyyumi AA. Circulating endothelial progenitor cells, vascular function, and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med 2003;348:593–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kockx MM. Apoptosis in the atherosclerotic plaque: quantitative and qualitative aspects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998;18:1519–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolodgie FD, Narula J, Burke AP, Haider N, Farb A, Hui-Liang Y, et al. Localization of apoptotic macrophages at the site of plaque rupture in sudden coronary death. Am J Pathol 2000;157:1259–68.
   Google Scholar
• Herrmann M, Voll RE, Zoller OM, Hagenhofer M, Ponner BB, Kalden JR. Impaired phagocytosis of apoptotic cell material by monocyte-derived macrophages from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41:1241–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumann I, Kolowos W, Voll RE, Manger B, Gaipl U, Neuhuber WL, et al. Impaired uptake of apoptotic cells into tingible body macrophages in germinal centers of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2002; 46:191–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botto M, Dell'Agnola C, Bygrave AE, Thompson EM, Cook HT, Petry F, et al. Homozygous C 1 q deficiency causes glomerulonephritis associated with multiple apoptotic bodies. Nature Genetics 1998;19: 56–9.
   Google Scholar
• Mevorach D, Zhou JL, Song X, Elkon KB. Systemic exposure to irradiated apoptotic cells induces autoantibody production. J Exp Med 1998;188:387–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann J, Davies MJ. Mechanisms of progression in native coronary artery disease: role of healed plaque disruption. Heart 1999;82:265–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekdahl KN, Bengtsson AA, Andersson J, Elgue G, Ronnblom L, Sturfelt G, et al. Thrombotic disease in systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with a main-tained systemic platelet activation. Br J Haematol 2004;125: 74–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Segal J, Kickler T, Petri M. Tissue factor activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: association with disease activity. J Rheumatol 2000;27:2827–32.
   Google Scholar
• Yla-Herttuala S, Palinski W, Butler SW, Picard S, Steinberg D, Witztum JL. Rabbit and human atherosclerotic lesions contain IgG that recognizes epitopes of oxidized LDL. Arterioscler Thromb 1994;14:32–40.
   Google Scholar
• Horkko S, Bird DA, Miller E, Itabe H, Leitinger N, Subbanagounder G, et al. Monoclonal autoanti-bodies specific for oxidized phospholipids or oxidized phospholipid-protein adducts inhibit macrophage uptake of oxidized low-density lipoproteins. J Clin Invest 1999;103:117–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang MK, Bergmark C, Laurila A, Horkko S, Han KH, Friedman P, et al. Monoclonal antibodies against oxidized low-density lipoprotein bind to apoptotic cells and inhibit their phagocytosis by elicited macro-phages: evidence that oxidation-specific epitopes mediate macrophage recognition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96:6353–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinu AR, Merrill JT, Shen C, Antonov IV, Myones BL, Lahita RG. Frequency of antibodies to the cholesterol transport protein apolipoprotein Al in patients with SLE. Lupus 1998;7:355–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lahita RG, Rivkin E, Cavanagh I, Romano P. Low levels of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, and apolipopro-tein Al in association with anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1993;36:1566–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delgado AJ, Ames PR, Donohue S, Stanyer L, Nourooz-Zadeh J, Ravirajan C, et al. Antibodies to high-density lipoprotein and beta2-glycoprotein I are inversely correlated with paraoxonase activity in systemic lupus erythematosus and primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Arthritis Rheum 2002;46: 2686–94.
   Google Scholar
• Cockerill GW, Saklatvala J, Ridley SH, Yarwood H, Miller NE, Oral B, et al. High-density lipoproteins differentially modulate cytokine-induced expression of E-selectin and cyclooxygenase-2. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999;19: 910–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frostegärd J, Ulfgren A-K, Nyberg P, Hedin U, Swedenborg J, Andersson U, et al. Cytokine expression in advanced human atherosclerotic plaques: dominance of pro-inflammatory (Thl) and macrophage-stimulating cytokines. Atherosclerosis 2001;145:33–43.
   Google Scholar
• Lutgens E, Gorelik L, Daemen MJ, de Muinck ED, Grewal IS, Koteliansky YE, et al. Requirement for CD154 in the progression of atherosclerosis. Nat Med 1999;5: 1313–6.
   Google Scholar
• Nakajima T, Schulte S, Warrington KJ, Kopecky SL, Frye RL, Goronzy JJ, et al. T-cell-mediated lysis of endothelial cells in acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2002;105:570–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakajima T, Goek 0, Zhang X, Kopecky SL, Frye RL, Goronzy JJ, et al. De novo expression of killer immunoglobulin-like receptors and signaling proteins regulates the cytotoxic function of CD4 T cells in acute coronary syndromes. Circ Res 2003;93: 106–13.
   Google Scholar
• Martens PB, Goronzy JJ, Schaid D, Weyand CM. Expansion of unusual CD4 + T cells in severe rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1997;40:1106–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan MJ, Lewis EE, Shelden EA, Somers E, Pavlic R, McCune WJ, et al. The apoptotic ligands TRAIL, TWEAK, and Fas ligand mediate monocyte death induced by autologous lupus T cells. J Immunol 2002;169:6020–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of anti-platelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarc-tion, and stroke in high risk patients. Br Med J 2002;324: 71–86.
   Google Scholar
• Catella-Lawson F, Reilly MP, Kapoor SC, Cucchiara AJ, DeMarco S, Toumier B, et al. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors and the antiplatelet effects of aspirin. N Engl J Med 2001;345: 1809–17.
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald TM, Wei L. Effect of ibuprofen on cardiopro-tective effect of aspirin. Lancet 2003;361:573–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia Rodriguez L, Varas-Lorenzo C, Maguire A, Gonthlez-Pérez A. Nonsteroidal antiinfiammatory drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction in the general population. Circulation 2004;109:3000–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baigent C, Patrono C. Selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors, aspirin, and cardiovascular disease: a reappraisal. Arthritis Rheum 2003;48:12–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Solomon DH, Schneeweiss S, Glynn RJ, Kiyota Y, Levin R, Mogun H, etal. Relationship between selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and acute myocardial infarction in older adults. Circulation 2004;109: 2068–73.
   Google Scholar
• Cipollone F, Prontera C, Pini B, Marini M, Fazia M, De Cesare D, et al. Overexpression of functionally coupled cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E synthase in sympto-matic atherosclerotic plaques as a basis of prostaglandin E(2)-dependent plaque instability. Circulation 2001;104: 921–7.
   Google Scholar
• Burleigh ME, Babaev VR, Oates JA, Harris RC, Gautam S, Riendeau D, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 promotes early atherosclerotic lesion formation in LDL receptor-deficient mice. Circulation 2002;105:1816–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chenevard R, Hurlimann D, Bechir M, Enseleit F, Spieker L, Hermann M, et al. Selective COX-2 inhibition improves endothelial function in coronary artery disease. Circulation 2003;107:405–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulkley BH, Roberts WC. The heart in systemic lupus erythematosus and the changes induced in it by corticoster-oid therapy. A study of 36 necropsy patients. Am J Med 1975;58:243–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallerath T, Witte K, Schafer SC, Schwarz PM, Prellwitz W, Wohlfart P, et al. Down-regulation of the expression of endothelial NO synthase is likely to contribute to glucocorticoid-mediated hypertension. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96: 13357–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangos GJ, Walker BR, Kelly JJ, Lawson JA, Webb DJ, Whitworth JA. Cortisol inhibits cholinergic vasodilation in the human forearm. Am J Hypertens 2000;13:1155–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallgren R, Berne C. Glucose intolerance in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases is normalized by glucocorti-coids. Acta Med Scand 1983;213:351–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgan SL, Baggott JE, Lee JY, Alarcon GS. Folic acid supplementation prevents deficient blood folate levels and hyperhomocysteinemia during longterm, low dose methotrex-ate therapy for rheumatoid arthritis: implications for cardio-vascular disease prevention. J Rheumatol 1998;25:441–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landewé RBM, Van den Borne BEEM, Breedveld FC, Dijkmans BAC. Methotrexate effects in patients with rheumatoid arthritis with cardiovascular comorbidity. Lancet 2000;355:1616–7.
   Google Scholar
• Choi HK, Hernan MA, Seeger JD, Robins JM, Wolfe F. Methotrexate and mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Lancet 2002;359:1173–7.
   Google Scholar
• Munro R, Morrison E, McDonald AG, Hunter JA, Madhok R, Capell HA. Effect of disease modifying agents on the lipid profiles of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1997;56:374–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam LS, Gladman DD, Hallett DC, Rahman P, Urowitz MB. Effect of antimalarial agents on the fasting lipid profile in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2000;27:2142–5.
   Google Scholar
• Beynen AC, van der Molen AJ, Geelen MJ. Inhibition of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis by chloroquine. Lipids 1981;16:472–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) [see comments]. Lancet 1994;344: 1383–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Isles CG, Lorimer AR, MacFarlane PW, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1301–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Rifai N, Clearfield M, Downs JR, Weis SE, Miles JS, et al. Measurement of C-reactive protein for the targeting of statin therapy in the primary prevention of acute coronary events. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1959–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason JC. Statins and their role in vascular protection. Clin Sci (Lond) 2003;105:251–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leung BP, Sattar N, Crilly A, Prach M, McCarey DW, Payne H, et al. A novel anti-inflammatory role for simvastatin in inflammatory arthritis. J Immunol 2003;170: 1524–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarey DW, McInnes IB, Madhok R, Hampson R, Scherbakova 0, Ford I, et al. Trial of atorvastatin in rheumatoid arthritis (TATA): double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;363: 2015–21.
   Google Scholar
• Youssef S, Stuve 0, Patarroyo JC, Ruiz PJ, Radosevich JL, Hur EM, et al. The HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, atorvastatin, promotes a Th2 bias and reverses paralysis in central nervous system autoimmune disease. Nature 2002; 420:78–84.
   Google Scholar
• Park YB, Choi HK, Kim MY, Lee WK, Song J, Kim DK, et al. Effects of antirheumatic therapy on serum lipid levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study. Am J Med 2002;113:188–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boers M, Nurmohamed MT, Doelman CJ, Lard LR, Verhoeven AC, Voskuyl AE, et al. Influence of glucocorti-coids and disease activity on total and high density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2003;62:842–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar