- Botswana National Archives (BNA) HC.2/7/15, 'Notes on the Country Between Mafeking and Shoshong Treating Especially the Geology and Hygiene', 1885.
- MacRae , D. 1920 . “ 'The Bechuanaland Protectorate Its People and Prevalent Diseases. With A Special Consideration of the Effects of Tropical Residence and Food in Relation to Health and Disease,' ” . Edinburgh BNA BNB.3240,, MD Thesis
- BNA S. 176/4, Resident Commissioner to High Commissioner, 26 January 1931.
- Schapera , I. 1947 . Migrant Labour and Tribal Life: A Study of Conditions in the Bechuanaland Protectorate , 16 – 17 . London : Oxford University Press .
- BNA S. 437/1/1, Statistics.
- Packard , R. 1989 . White Plague, Black Labor: Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa , Berkeley : University of California Press .
- Katz , E. 1994 . The White Death , Johannesburg : Witwatersrand University Press .
- Oilman , S. 1985 . 'Black Bodies, White Bodies: Toward an Iconography of Female Sexuality in Late Nineteenth Century Art, Medicine, and Literature' . Critical Inquiry , 12 : 204 – 242 . There is, of course, a fascinating literature on colonisation and African women's bodies, which explores the sexual pathologising of black female bodies by colonists. See, for example,
- Oilman , S. 1985 . Deference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness , Ithaca : Cornell University Press .
- Comaroff , J. and Comaroff , J. L. 1997 . Of Revelation and Revolution: The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier , Vol. II , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Vaughan , M. 1991 . Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness , Stanford : Stanford University Press . Chapter 6
- Butchart , A. 1998 . The Anatomy of Power: European Constructions of the African Body , London : Zed Books . For a Foucauldian historical analysis of these encounters in South Africa see
- Vaughan . Curing Their Ills 43 – 52 . These resistant practices could take seemingly contradictory forms. For example, in Megan Vaughan 's provocative account of early colonial medicine, African communities might subvert colonial medical knowledge through evasion of vaccination campaigns, or by contrast through an affinity for injections, which disregarded biomedical epistemology:
- Lyons , M. 1992 . The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900-1940 , 183 – 194 . 196 – 198 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Sadowsky , J. 1999 . Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nigeria , Berkeley : University of California Press .
- White , L. 1995 . '"They Could Make Their Victims Dull": Genders and Genres, Fantasies and Cures in Colonial Southern Uganda' . American Historical Review , 100 For a clear discussion of the value of a patient-centred approach in medical history see
- Porter , R. 1985 . 'Doing Medical History From Below' . Theory and Society , 14 : 175 – 198 .
- Kleinman , A. 1988 . The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing and the Human Condition , New York : Harper Collins .
- Kraut , A. 1994 . Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the 'Immigrant Menace' , 50 – 77 . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press . In his study of immigrant medical examinations on Ellis Island, New York, Alan Kraut demonstrates how such brief encounters were confusing to both examiners and examinees and did not amount to challenges between therapeutic systems. Rather, as examiners challenged the boundaries between external signifiers and internal experience or qualities in new ways, examinees were caught up in the palpable power of the new medico-state regime.
- Schapera . Migrant Labour and Tribal Life 22
- BNA S.387/5, Extract from Minutes of the 17th Session of the Native Advisory Council Meeting, May, 1936.
- Crush , J. , Jeeves , A. and Yudelman , D. 1991 . South Africa's Labor Empire: A History of Black Migrancy to the Gold Mine , Boulder : Westview Press . Table A:4
- Schapera . Migrant Labour and Tribal Life 34
- Ibid., pp. 39, 43.
- BNA RC. 2/48, Resident Commissioner to High Commissioner [no date], re: Economy and Labour in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1910.
- Wylie , D. 1988 . 'The Changing Face of Hunger in South African History 1880-1980' . Past and Present , 122 : 159 – 199 .
- Packard . White Plague, Black Labor 92 – 125 . For more on the rural spread of TB during this period see
- As the Acting Assistant Resident Magistrate from Molepolole in GaKwena commented in 1935, "The mine labourers kept this Reserve during the last Depression.' BNA 436/12, Acting Assistant Resident Magistrate To Government Secretary 15 July 1935. For an interesting discussion of the process of nutritional decline in southern Africa, specifically among the Bangwato (east-central Bechuanaland) and the southern Nguni (Pondoland), see Wylie, 'The Changing Face of Hunger in South African History'.
- Packard . White Plague, Black Labor 69
- Dyke , W. 10 September 1934 . Principal Medical Officer Mafeking, to Assistant Resident Commissioner Stanley 10 September , By 1935, a handful of recruiters had already been employing local doctors to perform group examinations of recruits for a few years. See BNA S.426/5, Labour, Native (for mines) Question of Medical Examination of Prior to Repatriation, 1934-36,
- BNA S.398/6, 'Report of Dr. P.M. Shepherd on the poor physique of mine recruits and main causes of rejection', 1934.
- Ibid.; interview with Dr A. Merriweather, 8 October 1997.
- BNA S.398/6, 'Report of Dr. P.M. Shepherd'.
- BNA S.426/4/1, Labour, Native: Medical Examination of Recruits. Circular to Medical Officers re: Standards Required for Recruits for Mines etc, 26 June 1928 (Retyped with revisions 24 February, 1932).
- Ibid.
- CWM Africa Odds Box 34, Dr E. E. Barnett to Cocker Brown re: Sources of Income, 1938 [no date]; Ibid, Cocker Brown to Senator J. D. Rheinallt Jones, 11 January 1939; CWM AF/45, Molepolole Annual Report 1939.
- CWM AF/45, Molepolole Annual Report, 1939.
- BNA S. 176/4, Application for Assistance From the Colonial Development Fund for Development of Health Services in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1931.
- Bechuanaland Annual Medical and Sanitary Report, 1941.
- Thabane , M. and Guy , J. 1988 . Technology, Ethnicity, and Ideology: Basotho Miners and Shaft-Sinking on the South African Gold Mines' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 14 In a broader sense physiques were also denned by ethnicity within this region. Ethnicity became a marker for a collective physical type. Africans themselves used these essentialised physical and cultural categories to carve out occupational niches. See, for example,, Certain sub-ethnic groups within Bechuanaland, i.e. the Bakgalagadi, who were historically of the servant class and who were concentrated in the villages farther out into the desert, were as a group seen as even less fit than the Tswana, in general, for mining. As one administrator wrote, 'I would further point out that a large percentage of repatriated TB and phthisis patients are Mokgalagadi natives, which shows they are apparently not physically fit or capable for work underground in the Mines'. DC, Kanye, to Assistant RC, 20 April 1936, BNA S.426/5, Labour, Native (for mines) Question of Medical Examination of Prior to Repatriation, 1934-36
- Packard , R. 1989 . 'The "Healthy Reserve" and the "Dressed Native": Discourses on Black Health and the Language of Legitimation in South Africa' . American Ethnologist , 16 : 686 – 703 . It is important also to note that the idealised image of the African countryside was an important legitimating tool for a colonial power, which did not want to invest in the African agricultural sector, but which at the same time depended on these same communities to replenish the industrial workforce. See
- BNA BNB 3240, MacRae, 'The Bechuanaland Protectorate'., For more on the historical relationship between eugenics, environment, public health and physiology in South Africa at this time see also pp. 137-141, 160-165
- Dubow , Saul . 1995 . Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa , 163 Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Shepherd , P. 1947 . Notes on Molepolole: A Missionary Record , 28 Edinburgh : United Free Church of Scotland . BNA S.438/2/1, Medical Officer, Serowe, to Principal Medical Officer, 30 September 1936; CWM Africa Odds Box 31, 'Notes on the Question of Medical Work at Maun in Bechuanaland ' [author unknown], 1934; Rev.
- BNA S. 176/4, South Africa, Bechuanaland Protectorate, No: 139, No 2277, 26 January 1931, and attached 'Application for Assistance From the Colonial Development Fund for Development of Health Services in the Bechuanaland Protectorate'.
- Packard . "Hie "Healthy Reserve'" 692
- Shepherd . Notes on Molepolole 28 Bechuanaland Protectorate Annual Medical and Sanitary Reports for the years 1930-1941. These critiques of local ecology and diet took a variety of forms over the decade in question. For example, in the Annual Medical Report for 1930, the Principal Medical Officer blamed the human geography of the Tswana, asserting that their poor diet was a result of local residential patterns in which cattle-posts were maintained at great distances from central villages. With a complete disregard for the lack of adequate water points, he then advocated breaking up Tswana villages and scattering residents into small hamlets located near cattle-posts and agricultural lands. See also
- Alverson , H. 1978 . Mind in the Heart of Darkness: Value and Self-identity Among the Tswana of Southern Africa , New Haven : Yale University Press . For an excellent discussion of wage labour and personhood among the Tswana see, Chapters 5 and 6
- BNA S. 387/5, Extract from Minutes of the 17th Session of the Native Advisory Council Meeting, May 1936.
- BNA S. 387/5, Extracts from Minutes of the 17th Session of the Native Advisory Council Meeting, May 1936.
- Ibid
- BNA S.438/2/1, Extract from Minutes of 20th Session Native Advisory Council, 6-10 March 1939.
Journal of Southern African Studies
Volume 27, 2001 - Issue 4