The challenges of teaching and learning about science in the twenty-first century: exploring the abilities and constraints of adolescent learners

References

• Abd-El-Khalick , F. , Boujaoude , S. , Duschl , R. , Lederman , N.G. , Mamlok-Naaman , R. and Hofstein , A. 2004 . Inquiry in science education: International perspectives . Science education , 88 ( 3 ) : 397 – 419 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adadan , E. , Trundle , K.C. and Irving , K.E. 2010 . Exploring grade 11 students’ conceptual pathways of the particulate nature of matter in the context of multi-representational instruction . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 47 ( 8 ) : 1004 – 1035 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akaygun , S. 2005 . Using static and dynamic visuals to represent chemical change at molecular level . International Journal of Science Education , 27 ( 11 ) : 1269 – 1298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , P.A. , Jetton , T.L. and Kulikowich , J.M. 1995 . Interrelationship of knowledge, interest and recall: Assessing a model of domain learning . Journal of Educational Psychology , 87 : 559 – 575 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Association for the Advancement of Science . 1993 . Benchmarks for science literacy , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ames , C. 1992 . Classrooms: Goals, structures and student motivation . Journal of Educational Psychology , 84 ( 3 ) : 261 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand , P.G. and Ross , S.M. 1987 . Using computer-assisted instruction to personalise arithmetic materials for elementary school children . Journal of Educational Psychology , 79 : 72 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. 2002 . School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence . Journal of Educational Psychology , 94 : 795 – 809 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. and Anderman , L.H. 2010 . Classroom motivation , Boston , MA : Pearson .
   Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. and Young , A.J. 1994 . Motivation and strategy use in science. Individual differences and classroom effects . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 31 ( 8 ) : 811 – 831 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. and Maehr , M.L. 1994 . Motivation and schooling in the middle grades . Review of Educational Research , 64 ( 2 ) : 287 – 309 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. , Eccles , J.S. , Yoon , K.S. , Roeser , R.W. , Wigfield , A. and Blumenfeld , P. 2001 . Learning to value math and reading: Individual differences and classroom effects . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 26 : 76 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. , Griessinger , T. and Westerfield , G. 1998 . Motivation and cheating during early adolescence . Journal of Educational Psychology , 90 : 84 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderman , E.M. , Anderman , L.H. , Yough , M. and Gimbert , B. 2010 . Value-added models of assessment: Implications for motivation and accountability . Educational Psychologist , 45 ( 2 ) : 123 – 137 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , L.W. 2003 . Classroom assessment: Enhancing the quality of teacher decision making , Mahwah , NJ : LEA .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , R.D. 2007 . “ Inquiry as an organising theme for science curricula ” . In Handbook of research on science education , Edited by: Abell , S.K and Lederman , N.G. 807 – 830 . Mahwah , NJ : LEA .
   Google Scholar
• Aronson , E. 1978 . The jigsaw classroom , Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1997 . Self-efficacy: The exercise of control , New York : WH Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Barab , S.A. and Hay , K.E. 2001 . Doing science at the elbows of experts: Issues related to the science apprenticeship camp . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 38 ( 1 ) : 70 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battistich , V. , Solomon , D. , Watson , M. and Schaps , E. 1997 . Caring school communities . Educational Psychologist , 32 : 137 – 151 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bednall , T.C. and James Kehoe , E. 2011 . Effects of self-regulatory instructional aids on self-directed study . Instructional Science , 39 ( 2 ) : 205 – 226 . doi: 10.1007/s11251-009-9125-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell , B. 2007 . “ Classroom assessment of science learning ” . In Handbook of research on science education , Edited by: Abell , S.K and Lederman , N.G. 965 – 1006 . Mahwah , NJ : LEA .
   Google Scholar
• Bereiter , C. and Scarmadalia , M. 1987 . The psychology of written composition , Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Blumenfeld , P. , Soloway , E. , Marx , R.W. , Krajcik , J.S. , Guzdial , M. and Palincsar , A.S. 1991 . Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning . Educational Psychologist , 26 : 369 – 398 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bråten , I. and Strømsø , H.I. 2006 . Epistemological beliefs, interest and gender as predictors of Internet-based learning activities . Computers in Human Behavior , 22 : 1027 – 1042 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brem , S.K. , Ranney , M. and Schindel , J. 2003 . Perceived consequences of evolution: College students perceive negative personal and social impact of evolutionary theory . Science Education , 87 ( 2 ) : 181 – 206 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Britton , E.D. and Schneider , S.A. 2007 . “ Large-scale assessments in science education ” . In Handbook of research on science education , Edited by: Abell , S.K. and Lederman , N.G. 1007 – 1040 . Mahwah , NJ : LEA .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , B. 2004 . “ Adolescents’ relationships with peers ” . In Handbook of adolescent psychology , Edited by: Lerner , R. and Steinberg , L. 363 – 394 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Burbules, N.C. (2010, May). Ubiquitous learning and the future of teaching. Paper presented for the Boyd Bode Memorial Lecture in Philosophy of Education, Columbus, OH.
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J.T. , Petty , R.E , Feinstein , J.A. and Jarvis , W.B.G. 1996 . Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition . Psychological Bulletin , 119 ( 2 ) : 197 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceci , S.J. , Williams , W.M. and Barnett , S.M. 2009 . Women’s underrepresentation in science. Sociocultural and biological considerations . Psychological Bulletin , 135 : 218 – 261 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan , C. , Burtis , J. and Bereiter , C. 1997 . Knowledge building as a mediator of conflict in conceptual change . Cognition and Instruction , 15 : 1 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi , M.T.H. 2000 . “ Self-explaining expository texts: The dual processes of generating inferences and repairing mental models ” . In Advances in instructional psychology , Edited by: Glaser , R. 161 – 237 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Chi , M.T.H. and Glaser , R. 1985 . “ Problem solving ability ” . In Human abilities: An information-processing approach , Edited by: Sternberg , R. 227 – 257 . San Francisco , CA : WH Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Chi , M.T.H. 2005 . Common sense conceptions of emergent processes: Why some misconceptions are robust . Journal of the Learning Sciences , 14 : 161 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi , M.T.H. and Glaser , R. 1985 . “ Problem-solving ability ” . In Human abilities: An information processing approach , Edited by: Sternberg , R.J. 227 – 250 . New York : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Chin , C. and Osborne , J. 2008 . Students’ questions: A potential resource for teaching and learning science . Studies in Science Education , 44 : 1 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin , C. and Osborne , J. 2010 . Supporting argumentation through students’ questions: Case studies in science classrooms . Journal of the Learning Sciences , 19 : 230 – 284 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chinn , C.A. and Malhotra , B.A. 2002 . Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical framework for evaluating inquiry tasks . Science Education , 86 ( 2 ) : 175 – 218 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper , S.E. and Robinson , D.A. 1989 . Childhood play activities of women and men entering engineering and science careers . School Counselor , 36 : 338 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Darling-Hammond , L. and McLaughlin , M.W. 1995 . Polices that support professional development in an era of reform . Phi Delta Kappan , 76 : 597
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , H.A. 2003 . Conceptualising the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development . Educational Psychologist , 38 : 207 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , H.A. , Ashley , S.M. and Couch , K.N. Middle school teachers’ concpetions of their relationships with their students . Paper presented at the American Psychological Association . Toronto , ON .
   Google Scholar
• Dawes , L. 2004 . Talk and learning in classroom science . International Journal of Science Education , 26 : 677 – 695 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day , S.B. and Goldstone , R.L. 2011 . Analogical transfer from a simulated physical system . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 37 ( 3 ) : 551 – 567 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci , E.L. and Ryan , R.M. 1994 . Promoting self-determined education . Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research , 38 ( 1 ) : 3 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Deci , E. and Ryan , R.M. 1985 . Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour , New York : Plenum .
   Google Scholar
• Delpit , L. 1995 . Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom , New York : New Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dole , J.A. and Sinatra , G.M. 1998 . Reconceptualising change in the cognitive construction of knowledge . Educational Psychologist , 33 ( 2/3 ) : 109 – 128 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duit , R. , Treagust , D.F. and Widodo , A. 2008a . “ Teaching science for conceptual change: Theory and Practice ” . In International handbook of conceptual change , Edited by: Vosnidou , S. 629 – 646 . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Duit , R. , Treagust , D. and Widodo , A. 2008b . “ Teaching for conceptual change: Theory and practice ” . In International handbook of research on conceptual change , Edited by: Vosniadou , S. 629 – 646 . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl , R.A. and Grandy , R.E. 2008 . Teaching scientific inquiry: Recommendations from research and implementation , Rotterdam , , The Netherlands : Sense Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl , R. and Osborne , J. 2002a . Supporting and promoting argumentation discourse in science education . Studies in Science Education , 38 : 39 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl , R. and Osborne , J. 2002b . Supporting and promoting argumentation discourse . Studies in Science Education , 38 : 39 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Dweck , C.S. and Leggett , E.L. 1988 . A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality . Psychological Review , 95 ( 2 ) : 256 – 273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles (Parsons) , J. , Adler , T.F. , Futterman , R. , Goff , S.B. , Kaczala , C.M. , Meece , J.L. and Midgley , C. 1983 . “ Expectancies, values and academic behaviors ” . In Achievement and achievement motivation , Edited by: Spence , J.T. 75 – 146 . San Francisco , CA : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Eccles , J.S. 1994 . Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al . Model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 18 ( 4 ) : 585 – 609 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles , J.S. 1984 . Sex differences in achievement patterns . Nebraska Symposium on Motivation , 32 : 97 – 132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles , J.S. 2007 . “ Where are all the women? Gender differences in participation in physical science and engineering ” . In Why aren’t more women in science. Top researchers debate the evidence , Edited by: Ceci , S.J. and Williams , W.M. 199 – 210 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Elliot , A.J. , McGregor , H.A. and Gable , S.L. 1999 . Achievement goals, study strategies and exam performance. A mediational analysis . Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 : 549 – 563 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink , A. , Grabner , R.H. , Benedek , M. , Reishofer , G. , Hauswirth , V. , Fally , M. , … and Neubauer , A.C. 2009 . The creative brain: Investigation of brain activity during creative problem solving by means of EEG and fMRI . Human Brain Mapping , 30 : 734 – 748 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredricks , J.A. , Blumenfeld , P.C. and Paris , A.H. 2004 . School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence . Review of Educational Research , 74 ( 1 ) : 59 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujita , K. , Trope , Y. , Liberman , N. and Levin-Sagi , M. 2006 . Construal levels and self-control . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 90 : 351 – 367 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garet , M.S. , Porter , A.C. , Desimone , L. , Birman , B.F. and Yoon , K.S. 2001 . What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers . American Educational Research Journal , 38 : 915 – 945 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates , S.J. 2010 . Confronting a third crisis in US science education. Science News , 177 ( 11 ) : 32
   Google Scholar
• Gentner , D. and Stevens , A.L. , eds. 1983 . Mental models , Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Goldstone , R.L. and Sakamoto , Y. 2003 . The transfer of abstract principles governing complex adaptive systems . Cognitive Psychology , 46 : 414 – 466 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham , S. 2006 . “ Writing ” . In Handbook of educational psychology , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Alexander , P.A. and Winne , P.H. 457 – 478 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Grant , M.C. and Fisher , D. 2010 . Reading and writing in science. Tools to develop disciplinary literacy , Thousand Oaks , CA : Corwin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Greene , J.A. and Azevedo , R. 2007 . Adolescents’ use of self-regulatory processes and their relation to qualitative mental model shifts while using hypermedia . Journal of Educational Computing Research , 36 : 125 – 148 .
   Google Scholar
• Gunel , M. , Hand , B. and Mcdermott , M.A. 2009 . Writing for different audiences: Effects on high school students’ conceptual understanding of biology . Learning and Instruction , 19 : 354 – 367 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzzetti , B.J. , Snyder , T.E. , Glass , G.V. and Gamas , W.S. 1993 . Promoting conceptual change in science. A comparative meta-analysis of instructional interventions from reading education and science education . Reading Research Quarterly , 28 : 117 – 155 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hand , B. , Gunel , M. and Ulu , C. 2009 . Sequencing embedded multimodal representations in a writing to learn approach to the teaching of electricity . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 46 : 225 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hand , B. , Hohenshell , L. and Prain , V. 2007 . Examining the effect of multiple writing tasks on year 10 biology students’ understandings of cell and molecular biology concepts . Instructional Science , 35 : 343 – 373 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes , J. 1996 . “ A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing ” . In The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications , Edited by: Levy , M. and Randsdell , S. 1 – 27 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Hayes , J. and Flower , L. 1980 . “ Identifying the organisation of writing processes ” . In Cognitive processes in writing , Edited by: Gregg , L. and Steinberg , E. 3 – 30 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Hidi , S. and Renninger , K.A. 2006 . The four-phase model of interest development . Educational Psychologist , 41 : 111 – 127 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidi, S., Weiss, J., Berndorff, D., & Nolan, J. (1998).The role of gender, instruction and a cooperative learning technique in science education across formal and informal settings. In L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, K.A. Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and learning: Proceedings of the Seeon conference on interest and gender (pp. 215–227). Kiel, Germany: IPN.
   Google Scholar
• Hmelo-Silver , C.E. 2004 . Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? . Educational Psychology Review , 16 : 235 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hmelo-Silver , C.E. and Azevedo , R. 2006 . Understanding complex systems: Some core challenges . Journal of the Learning Sciences , 15 ( 1 ) : 53 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hmelo-Silver, C.E., &Pfeffer, M.G. (2004). Comparing expert and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviors, and functions. Cognitive Science, 28, 127–138.
   Google Scholar
• Hofer , B.K. and Pintrich , P.R. 1997 . The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning . Review of Educational Research , 67 ( 1 ) : 88 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houston , J.E. and Smith , E.V. 2008 . Relationship of candidate communication and organisation skills to oral certification exam scores . Evaluation and the Health Professions , 31 : 404 – 418 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. , Stratford , J. , Krajcik , S. and Soloway , E. 1996 . Making system dynamics modeling accessible to pre-college science students . Interactive Learning Environments , 4 : 233 – 257 .
   Google Scholar
• Jonassen , D. 2008 . “ Model building for conceptual change ” . In International handbook of conceptual change , Edited by: Vosnidou , S. 676 – 693 . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Kardash , C.M. 2000 . Evaluation of an undergraduate research experience. Perceptions of undergraduate interns and their faculty mentors . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 ( 1 ) : 191 – 201 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kind , P.M. and Kind , V. 2007 . Creativity in science education: Perspectives and challenges for developing school science . Studies in Science Education , 43 : 1 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Kirschner , P.A. , Sweller , J. and Clark , R.E. 2006 . Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential and inquiry-based teaching . Educational Psychologist , 41 ( 3 ) : 75 – 86 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klimczak , A.K. , Balli , S.J. and Wedman , J.F. 1995 . Teacher decision making regarding content structure: A study of novice and experienced teachers . Journal of Instructional Psychology , 22 : 330 – 340 .
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn , D. 1993 . Science as argument: Implications for teaching and learning scientific thinking . Science Education , 77 : 319 – 337 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuiper , E. , Volman , M. and Terwel , J. 2005 . The web as an information resource in K-12 education: Strategies for supporting students in searching and processing information . Review of Educational Research , 75 : 285 – 313 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladd , G.W. , Herald-Brown , S.L. and Reiser , M. 2008 . Does chronic classroom peer rejection predict the development of children’s classroom participation during the grade school years? . Child Development , 79 : 1001 – 1015 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lederman , N.G. 2007 . “ Nature of science. Past, present and future ” . In Handbook of research on science education , Edited by: Abell , S.K and Lederman , N.G. 831 – 880 . Mahwah , NJ : LEA .
   Google Scholar
• Lehrer, R., &Schauble, L. (2006). Scientific thinking and science literacy. In K.A. Renninger, I.E. Sigel, W. Damon, & R.M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Child psychology in practice (6th ed., vol. 4, pp. 153–169). Hobokeny, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Linn , M.C. and Eylon , B. 2006 . “ Science education: Integrating views of learning and instruction ” . In Handbook of educational psychology , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Alexander , P.A. and Winne , P.H. 511 – 544 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Lowe, P., & Fisher, D.L. (2000). Peer power: The effect of group work on assessment on students attitudes in science. SAMEpapers, 2000, 129–147.
   Google Scholar
• Maehr , M.L. and Midgley , C. 1996 . Transforming school cultures , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maggioni , L. and Parkinson , M.M. 2008 . The role of teacher epistemic cognition, epistemic belifs and calibration in instruction . Educational Psychology Review , 20 : 445 – 461 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcia , J. 1966 . Development and validation of ego identity status . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 3 : 551 – 558 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcia , J. 1980 . “ Identity in adolescence ” . In Handbook of adolescent psychology , Edited by: Adelson , J. 159 – 187 . Wiley : New York .
   Google Scholar
• Mason, L, Boldrin, A., &Ariasi, N. (2009). Searching the web to learn about a controversial topic: Are students epistemically active? Instructional Science. DOI: 10.1007/s11251-008-9089-y
   Google Scholar
• Mason , L. and Boldrin , A. 2008 . “ Epistemic metacognition in the context of information searching on the Web ” . In Knowing, knowledge and beliefs: Epistemological studies across diverse cultures , Edited by: Khine , M.S. 377 – 404 . New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Mason , L. , Boldrn , A. and Zurlo , G. 2006 . Epistemological understanding in different judgment domains: Relationships with gender, grade level and curriculum . International Journal of Educational Research , 45 : 43 – 56 .
   Google Scholar
• Mayer , R.E. 1998 . Cognitive, metacogntive and motivational aspects of problem solving . Instructional Science , 26 : 49 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr , E. 1991 . One long argument: Charles Darwin and the genesis of modern evolutionary thought , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum , D. , Burland , S. , Gruson , L. and Cameron , R. 1985 . “ Metacognitive assessment ” . In The growth of reflection in children , Edited by: Yussen , S. 1 – 30 . Orlando , FL : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Messersmith , E.E. , Garrett , J.L. , Davis-Kean , P.E. , Malanchuk , O. and Eccles , J.S. 2008 . Career development from adolescence through emerging adulthood: Insights from information technology occupations . Journal of Adolescent Research , 23 : 206 – 227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middleton , M.J. and Midgley , C. 1997 . Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: An under-explored aspect of goal theory . Journal of Educational Psychology , 89 : 710 – 718 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midgley , C. , Kaplan , A. and Middleton , M.J. 2001 . Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances and at what cost? . Journal of Educational Psychology , 93 ( 1 ) : 77 – 86 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minner , D.D. , Jurist Levy , A. and Century , J. 2010 . Inquiry-based science instruction: What is it and does it matter? Results from a research synthesis years 1984 to 2002 . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 47 : 474 – 496 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno , R. , Ozogul , G. and Reisslein , M. 2011 . Teaching with concrete and abstract visual representations . Journal of Educational Psychology , 103 ( 1 ) : 32 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadelson , L.S. 2009 . How true inquiry can happen in k-16 science education . The Science Educator , 18 ( 1 ) : 48 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education . 2010 . National expert panel on increasing the application of knowledge about child and adolescent development and learning in educator preparation programmes , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health, Office of Science Education. (2009a). NIH curriculum supplement series. Bethesda, MD: NIH. Retrieved June 7, 2011, from http://science.education.nih.gov/home2.nsf/About+Us/B7D2AD5F39BA777985256E71005F7364
   Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health, Office of Science Education (2009b). NIH Curriculum Supplement Series. Bethesda, MD: NIH Retrieved June 7, 2011, from http://science.education.nih.gov/customers.nsf/WebPages/CSHome
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council (NRC) . 1996 . National science education standards , Washington , DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• NRC . 2007 . Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8 , Washington , DC : The National Academies Press .
   Google Scholar
• NRC . 2010 . Exploring the intersection of science education and twenty-first century skills: A workshop summary , Washington , DC : The National Academies Press .
   Google Scholar
• Newcombe , N.S. , Ambady , N. , Eccles , J. , Gomez , L. , Klahr , D. , Linn , M. , … and Mix , K. 2009 . Psychology’s role in mathematics and science education . American Psychologist , 64 : 538 – 550 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls , J.G. 1989 . The competitive ethos and democratic education , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nichols , S.L. and Berliner , D.C. 2007 . Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America’s schools , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nolen , S.B. and Haladyna , T.M. 1990 . Motivation and studying in high school science . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 27 : 115 – 126 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaum , E.M. and Sinatra , G.M. 2003 . Argument and conceptual engagement . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 28 : 384 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaum , E.M. , Sinatra , G.M. and Poliquin , A. 2008 . The role of epistemological beliefs and scientific argumentation in promoting conceptual change . International Journal of Science Education , 30 ( 15 ) : 1977 – 1999 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaum, E.M., & Jacobson, T.E. (2004, July). Reasons that students avoid intellectual arguments. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.
   Google Scholar
• Nussbaum , E.M. and Bendixen , L.M. 2003 . Approaching and avoiding arguments: The role of epistemological beliefs, need for cognition and extraverted personality traits . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 28 : 573 – 595 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obama, B. (2011, January). President’s State of the Union Address. Retrieved November 2, 2011, from http://www.npr.org/2011/01/26/133224933/transcript-obamas-state-of-union-address
   Google Scholar
• Osborne , J. , Collins , S. , Ratcliffe , M. , Millar , R. and Duschl , R.A. 2003 . What ‘ideas-about-science’ should be taught in school science? A Delphi study of the expert community . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 40 : 692 – 720 . doi: 10.1002/ tea.10105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Özmen , H. 2011 . Effect of animation enhanced conceptual change texts on 6th grade students’ understanding of the particulate nature of matter and transformation during phase changes . Computers & Education , 57 ( 1 ) : 1114 – 1126 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pajares , F. 2003 . Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation and achievement in writing: A review of the literature . Reading and Writing Quarterly , 19 : 139 – 158 .
   Google Scholar
• Paris , S.G. , Lawton , T.A. and Turner , J.C. 1992 . “ Reforming achievement testing to promote students’ learning ” . In Teaching thinking: An agenda for the twenty-first century , Edited by: Collins , C. and Mangieri , J.N. 223 – 241 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Paris , S.G. , Lipson , M.Y. and Wixson , K.K. 1983 . Becoming a strategic reader . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 8 : 293 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick, H., Anderman, L.H., Shalter, P.B., & Duffin, L.C. (in press). The role of educational psychology in teacher education: Three challenges for educational psychologists. Educational Psychologist, 46.
   Google Scholar
• Petty , R.E. and Briñol , P. 2006 . Understanding social judgment: Multiple systems and proceses . Psychological Inquiry , 17 : 217 – 223 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piaget , J. 1954 . The construction of reality in the child , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Pintrich , P.R. 2000a . Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 ( 3 ) : 544 – 555 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pintrich , P.R. 2000b . “ The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning ” . In Handbook of self-regulation , Edited by: Boekaerts , M. , Pintrich , P.R. and Zeidner , M. 451 – 502 . San Diego , CA : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Pintrich , P.R. and Schunk , D.H. 2002 . Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications , Upper Saddle River , NJ : Merrill/Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Quimby , J.L. , Wolfson , J.L. and Seyala , N.D. 2007 . Social cognitive predictors of African American Adolescents’ career interests . Journal of Career Development , 33 : 376 – 394 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeve , J. 2009 . Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive . Educational Psychologist , 44 ( 3 ) : 159 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renninger , K.A. 2009 . Interest and identity development in instruction: An inductive model . Educational Psychologist , 44 ( 2 ) : 105 – 118 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnick , M.D. , Bearman , P.S. , Blum , R.W. , Bauman , K.E. , Harris , K.M. and Jones , J. 1997 . Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health . Journal of the American Medical Association , 278 : 823 – 832 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivard , L.P. and Straw , S.B. 2000 . The effect of talk and writing on science learning: An exploratory study . Science Education , 84 : 566 – 593 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roeser , R.W. , Midgley , C. and Urdan , T. 1996 . Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioural functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging . Journal of Educational Psychology , 88 : 408 – 422 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotberg , I.C. 2006 . Assessment around the world . Educational Leadership , 64 ( 3 ) : 58 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sá , W. , Kelley , C. , Ho , C. and Stanovich , K.E. 2005 . Thinking about personal theories: Individual differences in the coordination of theory and evidence . Personality and Individual Differences , 38 : 1149 – 1161 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadler , T.D. 2009 . Situated learning in science education: Socio-scientific issues as contexts for practice . Studies in Science Education , 45 : 1 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandoval , W.A. and Reiser , B.J. 2004 . Explanation-driven inquiry: Integrating conceptual and epistemic scaffold for scientific inquiry . Science Education , 88 : 345 – 372 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scardamalia , M. and Bereiter , C. 1991 . Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge-building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media . Journal of the Learning Sciences , 1 : 37 – 68 .
   Google Scholar
• Scardamalia , M. and Bereiter , C. 1993 . Technologies for knowledge-building discourse . Communications of the ACM , 36 ( 5 ) : 37 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schunk , D.H. and Zimmerman , B.J. 2006 . “ Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and the ends ” . In Handbook of educational psychology , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Alexander , P. and Winne , P. 349 – 367 . San Diego , CA : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Schunk , D.H. and Ertmer , P.A. 1999 . Self regulatory processes during computer skill acquisition: Goal and self-evaluative influences . Journal of Educational Psychology , 91 : 251 – 260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schunk , D.S. and Zimmerman , B.J. 2008 . Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research and applications , Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbuam .
   Google Scholar
• Settlage , J. 2007 . Demythologizing science teacher education: Conquering the false ideal of open inquiry . Journal of Science Teacher Education , 18 : 461 – 467 .
   Google Scholar
• Sinatra , G.M. and Broughton , S.H. 2011 . Bridging reading comprehension and conceptual change in science. The promise of refutation text . Reading Research Quarterly , 46 ( 4 ) : 374 – 393 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinatra , G.M. , Brem , S.K. and Evans , E.M. 2008 . Changing minds? implications of conceptual change for teaching and learning about biological evolution . Evolution Education and Outreach , 2 : 189 – 195 .
   Google Scholar
• Sinatra, G.M., & Chinn, C. (2011). Thinking and reasoning in science: Promoting epistemic conceptual change. In K. Harris, C.B. McCormick, G.M. Sinatra, & J. Sweller (Eds.), Critical theories and models of learning and development relevant to learning and teaching (Vol. 1, pp. 257–282). In K. Harris & S. Graham (Eds.). APA Educational Psychology Handbook Series. APA Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Sinatra , G.M. and Kardash , C.M. 2004 . Teacher candidates’ epistemological beliefs, dispositions and views on teaching as persuasion . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 29 : 483 – 498 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinatra , G.M. and Nadelson , L. 2011 . “ Science and religion: Opposite ends of core epistemological continua ” . In Epistemology and science education: Understanding the evolution vs. intelligent design controversy , Edited by: Taylor , R. and Ferrari , M. 173 – 193 . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Slavin , R.E. 1995 . Cooperative learning , 2nd ed. , Boston : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Slavin , R.E. and Cooper , R. 1999 . Improving intergroup relations: Lessons learned from cooperative learning programmes . Journal of Social Issues , 55 : 647 – 663 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slotta , J.D. and Chi , M.T.H. 2006 . The impact of ontology training on conceptual change: Helping students understand the challenging topics in science . Cognition and Instruction , 24 : 261 – 289 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich , K.E. 1999 . Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning , Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Steinberg , L. 2008 . Adolescence , Boston , MA : McGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Sternberg , R.J. 1997 . Thinking styles , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sternberg , R.J. 1999 . Handbook of creativity , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sternberg , R.J. 2006 . The nature of creativity . Creativity Research Journal , 18 ( 1 ) : 87 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeney , L.B. and Sterman , J.D. 2007 . Thinking about systems: Student and teacher conceptions of natural and social systems . System Dynamics Review , 23 : 285 – 311 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taasoobshirazi, G., & Sinatra, G.M. (2011). A structural equation model of conceptual change in physics. Journal of Research on Science Teaching, DOI: 10.1002/tea.20434
   Google Scholar
• Treagust , D.F. , Jocobowitz , R. , Gallagher , J.L. and Parker , J. 2001 . Using assessment as a guide in teaching for understanding: A case study of a middle school science class learning about sound . Science Education , 85 ( 2 ) : 137 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel , G. 1996 . Science education: Global review faults US curricula . Science , 274 ( 5286 ) : 335
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vygotsky , L. 1978 . Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Weaver , G.C. 1998 . Strategies in K-12 science instruction to promote conceptual change . Science Education , 82 : 455 – 472 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigfield , A. and Eccles , J.S. 1992 . The development of achievement task values: A theoretical analysis . Developmental Review , 12 ( 3 ) : 265 – 310 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolters , C.A. and Rosenthal , H. 2000 . The relations between students’ motivational beliefs and their use of motivational regulation strategies . International Journal of Education Research , 33 : 801 – 820 .
   Google Scholar
• Yumusak , N. , Sungur , S. and Cakiroglu , J. 2007 . Turkish high school students’ biology achievement in relation to academic self-regulation . Educational Research and Evaluation , 13 : 53 – 69 .
   Google Scholar
• Zeidler , D. , Osborne , J. , Erduran , S. , Simon , S. and Monk , M. 2003 . “ The role of argument during discourse about socioscientific issues ” . In The role of moral reasoning on socioscientific issues and discourse in science education , Edited by: Zeidler , D.L. 97 – 116 . Dordrecht , , The Netherlands : Kluwer Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , B.J. 2000 . “ Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective ” . In Handbook of self-regulation , Edited by: Boekaerts , M. , Pintrich , P.R. and Zeidner , M. 451 – 502 . San Diego , CA : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , B.J. 2001 . “ Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and analysis ” . In Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Zimmerman , B.J. and Schunk , D.H. 1 – 38 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , B.J. and Cleary , T.J. 2009 . “ Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive account ” . In Handbook of motivation at school , Edited by: Wentzel , K.R. and Wigfield , A. 247 – 264 . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , B.J. and Risemberg , R. 1997 . Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 22 : 73 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman , B.J. and Dibenedetto , M.K. 2008 . Mastery learning and assessment: Implications for students and teachers in an era of high-stakes testing . Psychology in the Schools , 45 : 206 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar