Re-thinking Old Ways: Towards A More Critical Approach To Practical Work In School Science

References

• AAAS . 1967 . Science — A Process Approach , Washington, DC : Ginn & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Adams , S. 1991 . All in the mind . School Science Review , 72 : 95 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Ainley , J. 1990 . “ School laboratory work: some issues of policy ” . In The Student Laboratory and the Science Curriculum , Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Alberts , R. V.J. , Van BEUZEKOM , P. J. and De ROO , I. 1986 . The assessment of practical work: a choice of options . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 361 – 369 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen , J. B. , Barker , L. N. and Ramsden , J. H. 1986 . Guided inquiry laboratory . Journal of Chemical Education , 63 : 533 – 534 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allison , A. W. and Shrigley , R. L. 1986 . Teaching children to ask operational questions in science . Science Education , 70 : 73 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony , W. S. 1973 . Learning to discover rules by discovery . Journal of Educational Psychology , 64 : 325 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APU . 1982 . Science in Schools, Age 15 , London : DES . Report No. 1
   Google Scholar
• APU . 1985 . “ Science Report for Teachers No. 5 ” . In Science at Age 15 , London : DES .
   Google Scholar
• APU . Girls and Physics: A Discussion of APU Survey Findings . Occasional Paper No. 4 . London. DES .
   Google Scholar
• APU . 1989 . Science in Schools, Age 13 , London : DES . Review Report
   Google Scholar
• Arzi , H. , Ben-Zvi , R. and Ganiel , U. 1984 . Can teachers speak for their students? A comparison between teachers' and students' evaluation of a school science course . European Journal of Science Education , 6 : 379 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASE . 1979 . Alternatives for Science Education: A Consultative Document , Hatfield : Association for Science Education .
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson , E. 1990 . Learning scientific knowledge in the student laboratory Edited by: Hegarty-HAZEL , E. op.cit.
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson , p. and Delamont , S. 1976 . “ Mock-ups and cock-ups: the stage management of guided discovery instruction ” . In The Process of Schooling: A Sociological Reader , Edited by: Hammersley , M. and Woods , P. London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
   Google Scholar
• Baird , J. R. 1990 . Metacognition, purposeful enquiry and conceptual change Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Bates , G. c. 1978 . “ The role of the laboratory in secondary school science programs ” . In What Research Says to the Science Teacher , Edited by: Rowe , M. B. Vol. 1 , Washington, DC : NSTA .
   Google Scholar
• Beatty , J. W. and Woolnough , B. E. 1982a . Practical work in 11-13 science . British Educational Research Journal , 8 : 23 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Beatty , J. w. and Woolnough , B. E. 1982b . Why do practical work in 11-13 science? . School Science Review , 63 : 768 – 770 .
   Google Scholar
• Benson , A. 1986 . Children's Understanding of Science in Four Comprehensive Schools , University of Manchester . Unpublished MEd thesis
   Google Scholar
• Benson , G. D. 1989 . Epistemology and science curriculum . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 21 : 329 – 344 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson , G. D. and Jacknicke , K. G. 1988 . Students' conceptions of biology . Qualitative Studies in Education , 1 : 329 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Bentley D. Watts M. Learning and Teaching in School Science Open University Press Milton Keynes 1989
   Google Scholar
• Bentley , D. and Watts , M. 1992 . Communicating in School Science: Groups, Tasks and Problem Solving , London : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Betts , D. M. 1992 . “ Developing an appreciation of the nature of science using the history of the periodic law in a secondary school chemistry course ” . In History & Philosophy of Science in Science Education , Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 1 , Kingston : Queen's University .
   Google Scholar
• Biddulph , F. , Symington , D. and Osborne , R. 1986 . The place of children's questions in primary science education . Research in Science & Technological Education , 4 : 77 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Bliss , J. 1990 . Students' reactions to undergraduate science: laboratory and project work Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Bliss , J. and Ogborn , J. 1977 . Students' Reactions to Undergraduate Science , London : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Blosser , P. E. 1981 . A Critical Review of the Role of the Laboratory in Science Teaching , Columbus OH : Center for Science and Mathematics Education, Ohio State University .
   Google Scholar
• Boud , D. J. 1973 . The laboratory aims questionnaire—a new method for course improvement? . Higher Education , 2 : 81 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boud , B. J. , Dunn , J. , Kennedy , T. and Thorley , R. 1980 . The aims of science laboratory courses: a survey of students, graduates and practising scientists . European Journal of Science Education , 2 : 415 – 428 .
   Google Scholar
• Boyer , R. and Tiberghien , A. 1989 . Goals in physics and chemistry education as seen by teachers and high school students . International Journal of Science Education , 11 : 297 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandon , E. P. 1980 . Logic in the laboratory . School Science Review , 62 : 762 – 765 .
   Google Scholar
• Brock W. H. H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930 Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1973
   Google Scholar
• Brush , S. G. 1989 . History of science and science education . Interchange , 20 : 60 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Brusic , S. A. 1992 . Achieving STS goals through experiential learning . Theory into Practice , 31 : 44 – 51 .
   Google Scholar
• Bryce , T. G.K. and Robertson , I. J. 1985 . What can they do? A review of practical assessment in school science . Studies in Science Education , 12 : 1 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Buchan , A. S. and Jenkins , E. W. 1992 . The internal assessment of practical skills in science in England and Wales, 1960-1991,: some issues in historical perspective . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 367 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burbules , N. C. and Linn , M. C. 1991 . Science education and philosophy of science: congruence or contradiction? . International Journal of Science Education , 13 : 227 – 241 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burdett , P. 1989 . “ Adventures with N-rays: an approach to teaching about scientific theory and theory evaluation ” . In Doing Science: Images of Science in Science Education , Edited by: Millar , R. Lewes : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Butler , J. E. 1989 . Science learning and drama processes . Science Education , 73 : 569 – 579 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bybee , R. W. , Powell , J. C. and Ellis , J. D. 1991 . Integrating the history and nature of science and technology into science and society studies curriculum . Science Education , 75 : 143 – 155 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne , M. S. 1990 . More effective practical work . Education in Chemistry , 27 : 12 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Carey , S. , Evans , R. , Honda , M. , Jay , E. and Unger , c. 1989 . An experiment is when you try it and see if it works: a case study of grade 7 students' understanding of the construction of scientific knowledge . International Journal of Science Education , 11 : 514 – 529 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cauzinelle-MARMECHE , E. , Meheut , M. , SéRÉ , M. -G. and Weil-BARAIS , A. The influence of a priori ideas on the experimental approach . Science Education , 69 201 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cawthron , E. R. and Rowell , J. A. 1978 . Epistemology and science education . Studies in Science Education , 5 : 31 – 59 .
   Google Scholar
• Champagne , A. B. , Klopfer , L. E. and Gunstone , R. F. 1982 . Cognitive research and the design of science instruction . Educational Psychologist , 17 : 31 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Cheung , K. C. and Taylor , R. 1991 . Towards a humanistic constructivist model of science learning — changing perspectives and research implications . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 23 : 21 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clackson , S. G. and Wright , D. K. 1992 . An appraisal of practical work in science education . School Science Review , 74 : 39 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• CLIS (Children's Learning in Science Project) . 1987 . Approaches to Teaching the Particulate Theory of Matter , Leeds : Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds .
   Google Scholar
• Coles M. Active Science Collins London 1988
   Google Scholar
• Collins , H. and Shapin , S. 1989 . “ Experiment, science teaching, and the new history and sociology of science ” . In Teaching the History of Science , Edited by: Shortland , M. and Warwick , A. Oxford : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Connell , L. 1971 . Demonstrations and individual practical work in science . School Science Review , 52 : 692 – 703 .
   Google Scholar
• Coxhead , P. and Whitfield , R. c. 1985 . Science Understanding Measure: Test Manual , Birmingham : University of Aston .
   Google Scholar
• Crest(NZ) . 1990 . Silver Award Assessment Leaflet , Palmerston North : Massey University .
   Google Scholar
• De Boer , G. E. 1991 . A History of Ideas in Science Education , New York : Teachers College Press .
   Google Scholar
• Delamont , S. 1990 . A paradigm shift in science education? . Studies in Science Education , 18 : 153 – 158 .
   Google Scholar
• Delamont , S. , Beynon , J. and Atkinson , P. 1988 . In the beginning was the Bunsen: the foundations of secondary school science . International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 4 : 315 – 328 .
   Google Scholar
• Denny , M. and Chennell , F. 1986 . Science practicals: what do pupils think? . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 325 – 336 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DES/WO . 1989 . The National Curriculum: Science , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• DES/WO . 1991 . The National Curriculum: Science , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• Devenport , J. , Lazonby , J. and Waddington , D. J. 1979 . Attitudes to practicals . Education in Chemistry , 16 : 188 – 190 .
   Google Scholar
• Dibbs , D. R. 1982 . An Investigation into the Nature and Consequences of Teachers' Implicit Philosophies of Science , University of Aston . Unpublished PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Dixon , B. 1973 . What is Science For? , London : Collins .
   Google Scholar
• Doran , R. L. 1978 . Assessing the outcomes of science laboratory activities . Science Education , 62 : 401 – 409 .
   Google Scholar
• Dreyfus , A. 1986 . Manipulating and diversifying the levels of difficulty and task sophistication of one and the same laboratory exercise . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 17 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driver , R. 1975 . The name of the game . School Science Review , 56 : 800 – 805 .
   Google Scholar
• Driver , R. 1983 . The Pupil as Scientist? , Milton Keynes : Open University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Driver , R. and Bell , B. 1986 . Students' thinking and the learning of science: a constructivist view . School Science Review , 67 : 443 – 456 .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl , R. A. 1983 . Science teachers' beliefs about the nature of science and the selection, implementation and development of instructional tasks: a case study . Dissertation Abstracts International , 45 : 422 – A .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl , R. A. 1990 . Restructuring Science Education , New York : Teachers College Press .
   Google Scholar
• Duschl R. A. Hamilton R. J. Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology and Educational Theory and Practice State University of New York Press Albany 1992
   Google Scholar
• Ebenezer , J. V. and Zoller , U. 1993 . Grade 10 students' perceptions of and attitudes toward science teaching and school science . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 30 : 175 – 186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , J. and Power , C. 1990 . Role of laboratory work in a national junior secondary science project: Australian Science Project (ASEP) Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Eggleston , J. F. , Galton , M. J. and Jones , M. E. 1976 . Processes and Products of Science Teaching , London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Elstgeest , J. 1985 . “ The right question at the right time ” . In Primary Science… Taking the Plunge , Edited by: Harlen , W. London : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Fairbrother , B. 1991 . “ Principles of practical assessment ” . In Practical Science , Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. Milton Keynes : Open University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Farmer , A. and Frazer , M. J. 1985 . Practical skills in school chemistry . Education in Chemistry , 22 : 138 – 140 .
   Google Scholar
• Farmer , B. , Hanifin , E. and Hodson , D. 1993 . Interactive teaching: from principles to practice, article under review
   Google Scholar
• Fensham , P. J. 1980 . Books, teachers and committees — a comparative essay on authority in science education . European Journal of Science Education , 2 : 245 – 252 .
   Google Scholar
• Fensham , P. J. 1990 . Practical work and the laboratory in Science for All Edited by: Hegarty-HAZEL , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrington , G. and Loge , K. 1992 . Virtual reality: a new learning environment . The Computing Teacher , 19 : 16 – 19 .
   Google Scholar
• Fordham , A. 1980 . Student intrinsic motivation, science teaching practices and student learning . Research in Science Education , 10 : 108 – 117 .
   Google Scholar
• Fowles , G. 1937 . Lecture Experiments in Chemistry , London : G. Bell .
   Google Scholar
• Fraser , B. J. 1977 . Selection and validation of attitude scales for curriculum evaluation . Science Education , 61 : 317 – 330 .
   Google Scholar
• Fraser , B. J. , Mcrobbie , C. J. and Giddings , G. J. 1993 . Development and cross-national validation of a laboratory classroom environment instrument for senior high school science . Science Education , 77 : 1 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• French , J. 1989 . Accomplishing scientific instruction Edited by: Millar , R. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Friedler , Y. and Tamir , P. 1990 . Life in science laboratory classrooms at secondary level Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. Op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Gagné , R. M. 1963 . The learning requirements for enquiry . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 1 : 144 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , A. , Mason , c. and Matyas , M. 1989 . Equity, excellence and just plain good teaching . American Biology Teacher , 51 : 72 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , P. and Gauld , C. 1990 . Labwork and students' attitudes Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Garrett , R. M. and Roberts , I. F. Demonstration versus small group practical work in science education. A critical review of studies since 1900 . Studies in Science Education , 9 109 – 146 .
   Google Scholar
• Gaskell , P. J. 1992 . Authentic science and school science . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 265 – 272 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauld , C. F. and Hukins , A. A. 1980 . Scientific attitudes: a review . Studies in Science Education , 7 : 129 – 161 .
   Google Scholar
• Gayford , C. 1988 . Aims, purposes and emphasis in practical biology at Advanced Level — a study of teachers' attitudes . School Science Review , 69 : 799 – 802 .
   Google Scholar
• Gayford , C. 1992 . Patterns of group behaviour in open-ended problem-solving in science classes of 15 year-old students in England . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 41 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee , B. and Clackson , S. G. 1992 . The origin of practical work in the English school science curriculum . School Science Review , 73 : 79 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Giddings , G. J. , Hofstein , A. and Lunetta , v. N. 1991 . Assessment and evaluation in the science laboratory Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , J. K. , Osborne , R. J. and Fensham , P. J. 1982 . Children's science and its consequences for teaching . Science Education , 66 : 623 – 633 .
   Google Scholar
• Gil-PEREZ , D. , Dumas-CARRE , A. , Caillot , M. and Martinez-TORREGROSA , J. 1990 . Paper and pencil problem-solving in the physical sciences as a research activity . Studies in Science Education , 18 : 137 – 151 .
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez , G. and Gilbert , J. 1980 . A-level physics by the use of an independent learning approach: the role of lab work . British Educational Research Journal , 6 : 63 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Gott , R. and Mashiter , J. 1991 . Practical work in science — a task-based approach? Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Gould , c. D. 1978 . Practical work in sixth form biology . Journal of Biological Education , 12 : 33 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunning , D. J. 1978 . Report on the Assessment of Practical Work in Science Subjects in the Ordinary Grade , Dalkeith : Scottish Certificate of Education Examination Board .
   Google Scholar
• Gunning , D. J. and Johnstone , A. H. 1976 . Practical work in the Scottish O-grade . Education in Chemistry , 13 : 12 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunstone , R. F. 1991 . Reconstructing theory from practical experience Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Gunstone , R. F. and Champagne , A. B. 1990 . Promoting conceptual change in the laboratory Edited by: Hegarty-HAZEL , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Gunstone , R. F. , Mitchell , I. J. and The Monash Children's Science Group . 1988 . Two teaching strategies for considering children's science, ICASE Yearbook No. 2 . What Research Says to the Science Teacher , : 1 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Guthrie , H. B. 1980 . A Brief Review of the Literature Related to Practical Work in Science , University of Bath . Unpublished MEd thesis
   Google Scholar
• Hacking , I. 1983 . Representing and Intervening , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hacker , R. G. 1992 . Gender studies: some methodological and theoretical issues . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 527 – 539 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagen , J. B. and Kugler , c. 1992 . Using history to teach principles of biology to college students: the case of cell theory Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 1 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Hall , D. and Mccurdy , D. 1990 . A comparison of a Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) laboratory and a traditional laboratory on student achievement at two private liberal arts colleges . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 27 : 53 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , D. and Taylor , M. 1983 . Discovery learning in school science: the myth and the reality . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 15 : 277 – 289 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harty , H. , Kloosterman , T. and Matkin , J. 1989 . Science hands-on teaching-learning activities of elementary school teachers . School Science & Mathematics , 89 : 456 – 467 .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , T. J. and Stables , A. 1986 . Gender differences in attitudes to science for third year pupils: an argument for single sex teaching groups in mixed schools . Research in Science & Technological Education , 4 : 163 – 170 .
   Google Scholar
• Harvey , T. J. and Wareham , M. 1984 . An investigation into sex differences in certain aspects of science practical work with first year secondary school pupils in single sex and mixed teaching groups . Research in Science & Technological Education , 2 : 197 – 195 .
   Google Scholar
• Head , J. 1982 . What can psychology contribute to science education? . School Science Review , 63 : 631 – 642 .
   Google Scholar
• Hegarty-Hazel , E. 1990 . Learning technical skills in the laboratory Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Helm , H. and Gilbert , J. 1985a . Thought experiments and physics education, part 1 . Physics Education , 20 : 124 – 131 .
   Google Scholar
• Helm , H. , Gilbert , J. and Watts , M. 1985b . Thought experiments and physics edcation, part 2 . Physics Education , 20 : 211 – 217 .
   Google Scholar
• Hellingham , c. 1982 . A trial list of objectives of experimental work in science education . European Journal of Science Education , 4 : 29 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Henry , N. w. 1975 . “ Objectives for laboratory work ” . In The Structure of Science Education , Edited by: Gardner , p. L. Hawthorn : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• Herron , M. D. 1977 . Implicit curriculum — where values are really taught . The Science Teacher , 44 : 30 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• HMI . 1979 . Aspects of Secondary Education in England , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• HMI . 1987 . Report by HM Inspectors on a Survey of Science in Years 1-3 of Some Secondary Schools in Greenwich , London : DES .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1986a . The nature of scientific observation . School Science Review , 68 : 17 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1986b . Rethinking the role and status of observation in science education . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 18 : 381 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1988a . Experiments in science and science teaching . Educational Philosophy & Theory , 20 : 53 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1988b . Computer assisted learning: an alternative to laboratory work? . NZ Science Teacher , 56 : 40 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1988c . CAL and lab. work. Further considerations . NZ Science Teacher , 57 : 45 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1989 . The computerized laboratory . NZ Science Teacher , 61 : 5 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1990 . A critical look at practical work in school science . School Science Review , 70 : 33 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1991 . Using and constructing chemical databases . Education in Chemistry , 28 : 78 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1992a . Assessment of practical work: some considerations in philosophy of science . Science & Education , 1 : 115 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1992b . Redefining and reorienting practical work in school science . School Science Review , 73 : 65 – 78 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1993a . Philosophic stance of secondary school science teachers, curriculum experiences and children's understanding of science . Interchange , 24 : 41 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1993b . “ Teaching and learning about science: considerations in the philosophy and sociology of science ” . In Issues in Science Education: Teaching, Learning and Assessment , Edited by: Edwards , D. and Scanlon , E. forthcoming .
   Google Scholar
• Hodson , D. 1993 . The case against skills-based teaching in science . Curriculum Studies , 1 : 127 – 148 .
   Google Scholar
• Hofstein , A. 1988 . “ Practical work and science education II ” . In Development and Dilemmas in Science Education , Edited by: Fensham , P. J. Lewes : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hofstein , A. and Lunetta , v. N. 1982 . The role of the laboratory in science teaching: neglected aspects of research . Review of Educational Research , 52 : 201 – 217 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstein , A. , Mandler , V. , Ben-zvi , R. and Samuel , D. 1980 . Teaching objectives in chemistry: a comparison of teachers' and students' priorities . European Journal of Science Education , 2 : 61 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Holton , G. 1986 . The Advancement of Science and its Burdens , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hurd , P. D. 1969 . New Directions in Teaching Science , Chicago : Rand McNally .
   Google Scholar
• ILEA . 1987 . Science in Process , London : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Inhelder , B. and Piaget , J. 1958 . The Growth of Logical Thinking , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby , B. and Spargo , p. 1992 . An appropriate science education for Africa: Deweyan instrumentalism or critical realism? Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 1 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Jelly , S. 1985 . Helping children raise questions — and answering them Edited by: Harlen , w. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , E. W. 1979 . From Armstrong to Nuffield , London : John Murray .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , E. W. 1989 . “ Processes in Science Education: An Historical Perspective ” . In Skills and Processes in Science Education , Edited by: Wellington , J. J. London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , E. W. 1992 . HPS and school science education: remediation or reconstruction? Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 1 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , E. W. 1993 . School-based assessment of practical competence in science: some issues from English experience . Research in Science Education , 22 : 224 – 229 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , P. and Murphy , p. 1984 . The underachievement of girls in physics: towards explanations . European Journal of Science Education , 6 : 399 – 409 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnstone , A. H. 1984 . New stars for the teacher to steer by? . Journal of Chemical Education , 61 : 847 – 849 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnstone , A. H. and Letton , K. M. 1990 . Investigating undergraduate laboratory work . Education in Chemistry , 27 : 9 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnstone , A. H. and Letton , K. M. 1991 . Practical measures for practical work . Education in Chemistry , 28 : 81 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnstone , A. H. and Mccallum , M. 1972 . Objectives in Practical Work , Nottingham : Proceedings of the Education Division of the Chemical Society .
   Google Scholar
• Johnstone , A. H. and Wham , A. J.B. 1982 . The demands of practical work . Education in Chemistry , 19 : 71 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Jones , C. E. 1970 . Chemistry by discovery — an analysis and examination of the ‘discovery’ approach . School Science Review , 52 : 178 – 181 .
   Google Scholar
• Kahle , J. B. 1990 . “ Real students take chemistry and physics ” . In Windows into Science Classrooms: Problems Associated with High Level Cognitive Learning , Edited by: Tobin , K. , Kahle , J.B. and Fraser , B. J. London : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keister , J. N. 1990 . The Complexities of Practical Work in Physics Teaching: A Case Study of Three Secondary Schools in Sierra Leone , Kingston : Queen's University . Unpublished MEd thesis
   Google Scholar
• Kelly A. Science for Girls? Open University Press Milton Keynes 1987
   Google Scholar
• Kelly , A. 1988 . The customer is always right — girls' and boys' reactions to science lessons . School Science Review , 69 : 662 – 676 .
   Google Scholar
• Kemmis , S. and Mctaggert , R. 1981 . The Action Research Planner , Geelong : Deakin University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kempa , R. F. 1986 . Assessment in Science , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kempa , R. F. and Ayob , A. 1991 . Learning interactions in groupwork in science . International Journal of Science Education , 13 : 341 – 354 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempa , R. F. and Dias , M. M. 1990 . Students' motivational traits and preferences for different instructional modes in science education . International Journal of Science Education , 12 : 195 – 203 . 12, 205-216.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kempa , R. F. and Dube , G. E. 1974 . Science interest and attitude traits in students subsequent to the study of chemistry at O-level of the GCE . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 11 : 361 – 370 .
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy , J. 1984 . Some Aspects of Children's Ideas in Basic Circuit Electricity , University of Oxford . Unpublished MSc thesis
   Google Scholar
• Kerr , J. F. 1963 . Practical Work in School Science , Leicester : Leicester University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keys , W. 1987 . Aspects of Science Education , Windsor : NFER-Nelson .
   Google Scholar
• Kirschner , P. A. 1992 . Epistemology, practical work and academic skills in science education . Science & Education , 1 : 273 – 299 .
   Google Scholar
• Kirschner , P. A. and Meester , M.A. M. 1988 . The laboratory in higher science education: problems, premises and objectives . Higher Education , 19 : 81 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klainin , S. 1988 . Practical work and science education, I Edited by: Fensham , P. J. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Klainin , S. and Fensham , P. J. 1987 . Learning achievement in upper secondary school chemistry in Thailand: some remarkable sex reversals . International Journal of Science Education , 9 : 217 – 227 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klopfer , L. E. 1971 . “ Evaluation of learning in science ” . In Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning , Edited by: Bloom , B. S. , Hastings , J. T. and Madaus , G. F. New York : McGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Klopfer , L. E. 1990 . Learning scientific enquiry in the student laboratory Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Knorr-Cetina , K. D. 1983 . “ The ethnographic study of scientific work: towards a constructivist interpretation of science ” . In Science Observed , Edited by: Knorr-Cetina , K. D. and Mulkay , M. London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Koulaides , v. and Ogborn , J. 1988 . Use of systematic networks in the development of a questionnaire . International Journal of Science Education , 10 : 497 – 509 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koulaides , V. and Ogborn , J. 1989 . Philosophy of science: an empirical study of teachers' views . International Journal of Science Education , 11 : 173 – 184 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglak , H. 1951 . Some behavior objectives for laboratory instruction . American Journal of Physics , 19 : 223 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglak , H. 1952a . A comparison of the conventional and demonstration methods in the elementary college physics laboratory . Journal of Experimental Education , 20 : 293 – 300 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglak , H. 1952b . Experimental outcomes of laboratory instruction in elementary college physics . American Journal of Physics , 20 : 136 – 141 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglak , H. 1953 . Achievement of physics students with and without laboratory work . American Journal of Physics , 21 : 14 – 16 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn , T. S. 1970 . The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kyle , W. C. 1977 . An Analysis of Instructor and Student Behaviors in Introductory and Advanced Laboratories of Five Science Disciplines at the University Level , University of Iowa . Unpublished Master's thesis
   Google Scholar
• Kyle , W. C. 1980 . The distinction between inquiry and scientific inquiry and why high school students should be cognizant of the distinction . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 17 : 123 – 130 .
   Google Scholar
• Kyle , W. C. , Bonstetter , R. J. , Mccloskey , J. and Fults , B. A. 1985 . Science through discovery: students love it . Science & Children , 23 : 39 – 41 .
   Google Scholar
• Lantz , O. and Kass , H. 1987 . Chemistry teachers' functional paradigms . Science Education , 71 : 117 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakin , S. and Wellington , J. J. 1991 . Teaching the Nature of Science. A Study of Teachers' Views of Science and their Implications for Science Education , Sheffield : Division of Education, University of Sheffield .
   Google Scholar
• Larochelle , M. and Désautels , J. The Epistemological Turn in Science Education: The Return of the Actor . Paper presented at the International Workshop ‘Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies’ . Institute of Physics Education, University of Bremen .
   Google Scholar
• Latour , B. and Woolgar , S. 1979 . Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts , London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Lave , J. 1988 . Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics and Culture in Everyday Life , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lawrenz , F. 1984 . An evaluation of the effect of two different lengths of inservice training on teacher attitudes . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 21 : 97 – 106 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrenz , F. 1987 . Evaluation of a teacher inservice training program in physical science . Science Education , 77 : 251 – 258 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson , A. E. , Abraham , M. R. and Renner , J. w. 1989 . A Theory of Instruction, NARST Monograph No. 1 , Washington, DC : NARST .
   Google Scholar
• Layton , D. 1973 . Science for the People , London : George Allen & Unwin .
   Google Scholar
• Layton , D. 1990 . Student laboratory practice and the history and philosophy of science Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Lederman , N. G. 1986 . Relating teaching behavior and classroom climate to changes in students' conceptions of the nature of science . Science Education , 70 : 3 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lederman , N. G. and O'Malley , M. 1990 . Students' perceptions of tentativeness in science: development . use and sources of change? Science Education , 74 : 225 – 239 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard , W. H. 1992 . A comparison of student performance following instruction by interactive videodisc versus conventional laboratory . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 : 93 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letton , K. M. 1987 . A Study of the Factors Influencing the Efficiency of Learning in an Undergraduate Laboratory , CNAA . Unpublished MPhil thesis
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , J. L. and Foxcroft , G. E. 1978 . “ The experimental approach in the Nuffield physics course ” . In Physics Teaching in Schools , Edited by: Delacote , G. London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Linder , C. J. 1992 . Is teacher-reflected epistemology a source of conceptual difficulty in physics? . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 111 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linn , M. C. 1990 . What constitutes scientific thinking? . Contemporary Psychology , 35 : 16 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1986 . Assessment of Practical Skills in 15-year-old Pupils , University of Leeds . Unpublished PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1987 . “ Practical work ” . In Teaching Science , Edited by: Lockand , R. and Foster , D. 11 – 13 . London : Croom Helm .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1988 . A history of practical work in school science and its assessment, 1860-1986 . School Science Review , 70 : 115 – 119 .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1989a . Some less usual approaches to pupil work in school biology lessons . Journal of Biological Education , 23 : 142 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1989b . Assessment of practical skills. Part 1: the relationship between component skills . Research in Science & Technological Education , 7 : 221 – 234 .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1990a . Open-ended problem-solving investigations . School Science Review , 71 : 63 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1990b . Assessment of practical skills. Part 2: context dependency and construct validity . Research in Science & Technological Education , 8 : 35 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1991a . Creative work in biology — a pot pourri of examples . School Science Review , 72 : 39 – 46 . ; 72, 57-64.
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1991b . Open-ended problem-solving investigations — getting started . School Science Review , 72 : 67 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Lock , R. 1992 . Gender and practical skill performance in science . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 : 227 – 241 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovell , K. 1971 . The Growth of Basic Mathematical and Scientific Concepts in Children , London : University of London Press .
   Google Scholar
• Loving , c. c. 1991 . The scientific theory profile: a philosophy of science model for science teachers . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 28 : 823 – 838 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumpe , A. J. and Scharman , L. C. 1991 . Meeting contemporary goals for laboratory instruction: a content analysis of two secondary biology textbooks . School Science & Mathematics , 91 : 231 – 237 .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , P. P. 1976 . The Nature, Purpose and Organization of Practical Work in High Schools and Universities in South Africa , Johannesburg : South African Chemical Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , p. p. 1987 . Laboratory work in schools and universities: structures and strategies still largely unexplored . Australian Science Teachers Journal , 32 : 31 – 39 .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , P. P. and Gerrans , G. c. 1977 . The aims of first year chemistry courses. The expectations of new students and subsequent course influences . Research in Science Education , 7 : 173 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , P. P. and Ndyetabura , V. L. 1983 . Practical work in schools: an examination of teachers' stated aims and the influence of practical work according to students . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 20 : 663 – 671 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch , P. P. and Ndyetabura , v. L. 1984 . Students' attitudes to school practical work in Tasmanian schools . Australian Science Teachers Journal , 29 : 25 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Macdonald , B. 1977 . The educational evaluation of NDPCAL . British Journal of Educational Technology , 8 : 176 – 189 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macduffle , D. E. 1973 . Learning through practical work . Education in Chemistry , 10 : 87 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Mahoney , M. J. 1979 . Psychology of the scientist . Social Studies of Science , 9 : 349 – 375 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , B. E. and Brouwer , w. 1991 . The sharing of personal science and the narrative element in science education . Science Education , 75 : 707 – 722 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez , M. E. 1992 . Interest enhancements to science experiments: interactions with students' gender . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 : 167 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathews , J. C. 1984 . “ Assessment of students ” . In Teaching School Chemistry , Edited by: Waddington , D. J. Paris : UNESCO .
   Google Scholar
• Matthews , M. R. 1989 . Ernst Mach and thought experiments in science education . Research in Science Education , 18 : 235 – 241 .
   Google Scholar
• Matthews , M. R. 1992 . History, philosophy and science teaching: the present rapprochement . Science & Education , 1 : 11 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Medawar , P. B. 1967 . Is the scientific paper a fraud? . The Listener , September 12 : 377 – 378 .
   Google Scholar
• Medawar , P. B. 1969 . Induction and Intuition in Scientific Thought , London : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• Meichtry , Y. J. 1992 . Using laboratory experiences to develop the scientific literacy of middle school students . School Science Of Mathematics , 92 : 437 – 441 .
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe , R. J.A. , Abbotts , S. , Bray , p. , Exley , J. and Wisnia , D. 1984 . Teaching science through drama: an empirical investigation . Research in Science Of Technological Education , 2 : 77 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Merrill , R. and Ridgway , D. 1969 . The CHEM Study Story , San Francisco : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Meyer , G. R. 1970 . Reactions of pupils to the Nuffield Science Teaching Project trial materials in England at the O-level of the GCE . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 7 : 283 – 302 .
   Google Scholar
• Mcdowell , E. T. and Waddling , R. E.L. 1985 . Improving the design of laboratory worksheets . Journal of Chemical Education , 62 : 1037 – 1038 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michels , W. C. 1962 . The role of experimental work . American Journal of Physics , 30 : 172 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles , v. w. and Van Deventer , W. C. 1961 . The teaching of science at the college and university level . Review of Educational Research , 31 : 305 – 313 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millar , R. 1987 . Towards a role for experiment in the science teaching laboratory . Studies in Science Education , 14 : 109 – 118 .
   Google Scholar
• Millar , R. 1989a . What is scientific method and can it be taught? Edited by: Wellington , J. J. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Millar , R. 1989b . Bending the evidence: the relationship between theory and experiment in science education Edited by: Millar , R. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Millar , R. 1991 . A means to an end: the role of processes in science education Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Millar , R. and Driver , R. 1987 . Beyond processes . Studies in Science Education , 14 : 33 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Mitroff , I. I. and Mason , R. O. 1974 . On evaluating the scientific contribution of the Apollo missions via information theory: a study of the scientist-scientist relationship . Management Science: Applications , 20 : 1501 – 1513 .
   Google Scholar
• Moreira , M. A. 1980 . A non-traditional approach to the evaluation of laboratory instruction in general physics courses . European Journal of Science Education , 2 : 441 – 448 .
   Google Scholar
• Morris , T. D. 1982 . An Investigation of the Place of Practical Work in O-Level and CSE Physics , Leicester University . Unpublished MEd thesis
   Google Scholar
• Mulopo , M. M. and Fowler , H. S. 1987 . Effects of traditional and discovery instructional approaches on learning outcomes for learners of different intellectual development: a study of chemistry students in Zambia . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 24 : 217 – 227 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munby , H. 1982 . What is Scientific Thinking? A Discussion Paper , Ottawa : Science Council of Canada .
   Google Scholar
• Murphy , P. 1991 . Gender differences in pupils' reactions to practical work Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Nadeau , R. and DéSautels , J. 1984 . Episteniology and the Teaching of Science , Ottawa : Science Council of Canada .
   Google Scholar
• Newman , B. 1985 . Realistic expectations for traditional laboratory work . Research in Science Education , 15 : 8 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Nersessian , N. J. 1989 . Conceptual change in science and in science education . Synthese , 80 : 163 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielson , H. 1992 . The endless spiral — teaching history of technology in context Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 2 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Nott , M. 1992 . History in the school science curriculum: infection or immunity Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 2 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Novak , J. D. 1990 . The interplay of theory and methodology Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Obiomba , G. O. 1986 . Expository and guided discovery methods of presenting secondary school physics . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 51 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okebukola , p. A. 1986a . An investigation of some factors affecting students' attitudes towards chemistry laboratory . Journal of Chemical Education , 63 : 531 – 532 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okebukola , P. A. 1986b . Cooperative learning and students' attitudes to laboratory work . School Science & Mathematics , 86 : 582 – 590 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Loughlin , M. 1992 . Rethinking science education: beyond Piagetian constructivism toward a sociocultural model of teaching and learning . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 : 791 – 820 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson , J. K. 1990 . Teachers' conceptions of their subject and laboratory work in science Edited by: Hegarty-Hazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Olson , J. and Reid , W. A. 1982 . Studying innovations in science teaching: the use of repertory grid techniques in developing a research strategy . European Journal of Science Education , 4 : 193 – 201 .
   Google Scholar
• Orpwood , G. W.F. and Souque , J-P. 1985 . Toward the renewal of Canadian science education II. Findings and recommendations . Science Education , 69 : 625 – 636 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne , R. , Bell , B. and Gilbert , J. 1983 . Science teaching and children's views of the world . European Journal of Science Education , 5 : 1 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Osborne , P. and Freyberg , P. 1985 . Learning in Science: The Implications of Children's Science , Auckland : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Osborne , R. J. and Wittrock , M. c. 1983 . Learning science: a generative process . Science Education , 67 : 489 – 508 .
   Google Scholar
• Osborne , R. and Wittrock , M. 1985 . The generative learning model and its implications for science education . Studies in Science Education , 12 : 59 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Palladino , G. F. and Figgins , C. E. 1983 . Preparing for laboratory work . Education in Chemistry , 20 : 212 – 213 .
   Google Scholar
• Palmer , G. E. 1981 . Computer applications in the freshman laboratory . Journal of Chemical Education , 58 : 995
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , L. 1982 . “ Her brilliant career in science: why not? ” . In Girls Count in Maths and Science: A Handbook for Teachers , Edited by: Barnes , M. , Plaister , R. and Thomas , A. Sydney : Mathematical Association of New South Wales . (1984)
   Google Scholar
• Pell , A. W. 1985 . Enjoyment and attainment in secondary school physics . British Educational Research Journal , 11 : 123 – 132 .
   Google Scholar
• Penick , J. E. 1981 . What are your students really doing in the laboratory? . School Science & Mathematics , 81 : 596 – 600 .
   Google Scholar
• Pickering , M. 1985 . Lab is a puzzle, not an illustration . Journal of Chemical Education , 62 : 874 – 875 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanyi , M. 1958 . Personal Knowledge , London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
   Google Scholar
• Posner , M. I. and Keele , S. W. 1973 . “ Skill learning ” . In Second Handbook of Research on Teaching , Edited by: Travers , R.M. W. Chicago : Rand McNally .
   Google Scholar
• Posner , G. J. , Strike , K. A. , Hewson , P. W. and Gerzog , W. A. 1982 . Accommodation of a scientific conception: toward a theory of conceptual change . Science Education , 66 : 211 – 227 .
   Google Scholar
• Pugh , M. and Lock , R. 1989 . Pupil talk in biology practical work — a preliminary study . Research in Science & Technological Education , 7 : 15 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Qualter , A. , Strang , J. , Swatton , P. and Taylor , R. 1990 . Exploration: A Way of Learning Science , Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Raghubir , K. P. 1979 . The laboratory investigation approach to science instruction . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 16 : 13 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Ramsey , G. A. 1975 . Science teaching as an instructional system Edited by: Gardner , P. L. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Ramsey , G. A. and Howe , R. w. 1969 . An analysis of research on instructional procedure in secondary school science, part II . The Science Teacher , 36 : 72 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• Reid , D. J. and Hodson , D. 1987 . Science For All: Teaching Science in the Secondary School , London : Cassell .
   Google Scholar
• Reid , D. J. and Tracey , D. c. 1985 . The evaluation of a school science syllabus through objectives and attitudes . European Journal of Science Education , 7 : 375 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revised Nuffield Chemistry . 1975 . Teachers' Guide II , London : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , I. J. 1987 . Girls and boys and practical science . International Journal of Science Education , 9 : 505 – 518 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roe , A. 1961 . The psychology of the scientist . Science , 9 : 349 – 375 .
   Google Scholar
• Rogers , L. T. 1987 . The computer-assisted laboratory . Physics Education , 22 : 219 – 224 .
   Google Scholar
• Ross , J. A. 1988 . Sex-test interactions in the measurement of an integrated process skill: the sex-gender hypothesis . Research in Science & Technological Education , 6 : 193 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Roth , W. M. 1991 . Getting the most out of your labs: vee mapping in high school science . Crucible , 22 : 22 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Rowell , J. A. and Cawthron , E. R. 1982 . Images of science: an empirical study . European Journal of Science Education , 4 : 79 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Russell , N. 1988 . Teaching biology in a wider context: the history of the discipline as method . Journal of Biological Education , 22 : 45 – 50 . ; 22, 129-135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selley , N. J. 1989 . Philosophies of science and their relation to scientific processes and the science curriculum Edited by: Wellington , J. J. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Selley , N. J. 1989 . The philosophy of school science . Interchange , 20 : 24 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Schauble , L. , Klopfer , L. E. and Raghavan , K. 1991 . Students' transition from an engineering model to a scientific model of experimentation . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 28 : 859 – 882 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schibeci , R. A. 1984 . Attitudes to science: an update . Studies in Science Education , 11 : 26 – 59 .
   Google Scholar
• Schwab , J. J. 1962 . “ The teaching of science as inquiry ” . In The Teaching of Science , Edited by: Schwab , J. J. and Brandwein , P. F. Cambridge MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz , R. 1974 . Induction as an obstacle for the improvement of human knowledge . Philosophy of Education , 13 : 375 – 387 .
   Google Scholar
• Screen , P. 1986 . Warwick Process Science , Southampton : Ashford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Screen , P. 1988 . A Case for a process approach: the Warwick experience . Physics Education , 23 : 146 – 149 .
   Google Scholar
• Shakeshaft , C. 1986 . A gender at risk . Phi Delta Kappan , 67 : 499 – 503 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro , B. 1989 . What children bring to light: giving status to learners' views and actions in science . Science Education , 73 : 711 – 733 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro , B. 1992 . A life of science learning: an approach to the study of personal, social and cultural features in the initiation to school science Edited by: Hills , S. Vol. 2 , op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Shuell , T. 1987 . Cognitive psychology and conceptual change: implications for teaching science . Science Education , 71 : 239 – 250 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman , L. D. and Tamir , p. 1973 . Research on teaching in the natural sciences Edited by: Travers , R. M.W. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Siegel , H. 1978 . Kuhn and Schwab and science texts and the goals of science education . Educational Theory , 28 : 302 – 309 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel , H. 1979 . On the distortion of the history of science in science education . Science Education , 63 : 111 – 118 .
   Google Scholar
• Smolicz , J. J. 1970 . Paradigms and models . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology , 6 : 100 – 119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smolicz , J. J. and Nunan , E. E. 1975 . The philosophical and sociological foundations of science education: the demythologizing of school science . Studies in Science Education , 2 : 101 – 143 .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1980 . Teaching Children in the Laboratory , London : Croom Helm .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1987 . Social influences on the construction of pupils' understanding of science . Studies in Science Education , 14 : 63 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1989a . The social construction of school science Edited by: Millar , R. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1989b . A study of behaviour in the teaching laboratory . International Journal of Science Education , 11 : 317 – 326 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1989c . “ The retrial of Galileo ” . In The History and Philosophy of Science in Science Teaching , Edited by: Herget , D. E. Tallahassee : Florida State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. 1991 . School laboratory life Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , J. , Duveen , J. , Scott , L. and Mccarthy , S. 1992 . Teaching about the nature of science through history: action research in the classroom . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 : 409 – 421 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spears , J. and Zallman , D. 1977 . The influence of structured versus unstructured laboratory on student understanding of the processes of science . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 14 : 33 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Stawinski , W. 1986 . Research into the effectiveness of student experiments in biology . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 213 – 224 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens , P. 1978 . On the Nuffield philosophy of science . Journal of Philosophy of Education , 12 : 99 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Stewart , J. and Hafner , R. 1991 . Extending the conception of ‘problem’ in problem-solving research . Science Education , 75 : 105 – 120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinner , A. 1990 . Philosophy, thought experiments and large context problems in the secondary school physics course . International Journal of Science Education , 12 : 244 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strehle , J. 1964 . The Comparative Achievement of Seventh Grade Science Students Taught by Laboratory Versus Enriched Lecture-Demonstration Methods of Instruction , University of Houston . Unpublished PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Strike , K. A. 1975 . The logic of learning by discovery . Review of Educational Research , 45 : 461 – 483 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strube , p. and Lynch , p. p. 1984 . Some influences on the modern science text: alternative science writing . European Journal of Science Education , 6 : 321 – 338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers , M. K. 1982 . Science education and meaningful learning . School Science Review , 64 : 361 – 366 .
   Google Scholar
• Swain , J. R.L. 1974 . Practical objectives — a review . Education in Chemistry , 11 : 152 – 154 .
   Google Scholar
• Swain , J. R.L. 1989 . The development of a framework for the assessment of process skills in a graded assessments in science project . International Journal of Science Education , 11 : 251 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain , J. R.L. 1991 . The nature and assessment of scientific explorations in the classroom . School Science Review , 72 : 65 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• Spens Report . 1938 . Report of the Consultative Committee on Secondary Education with Special Reference to Grammar and Technical High Schools , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• Taber , K. S. 1992 . Girls' interactions with teachers in mixed physics classes: results of classroom observation . International Journal of Science Education , 14 : 163 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamir , p. 1977 . How are laboratories used? . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 14 : 311 – 316 .
   Google Scholar
• Tamir , p. 1985 . Content analysis focusing on inquiry . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 17 : 87 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamir , P. 1989 . Training teachers to teach effectively in the laboratory . Science Education , 73 : 59 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamir , p. 1990 . Evaluation of student laboratory work and its role in developing policy Edited by: Hegartyhazel , E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Tamir , p. 1991 . Practical work in school science: an analysis of current practice Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Tamir , P. , Yager , R. E. and Blunck , S. M. 1991 . The Iowa Assessment Handbook , Iowa City : University of Iowa .
   Google Scholar
• Tampion , D. 1977 . School science teaching: is there any? . New Scientist , 74 : 782 – 783 .
   Google Scholar
• Tasker , R. 1981 . Children's views and classroom experiences . Australian Science Teachers Journal , 27 : 33 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Thompson , J. J. 1975 . Practical Work in Sixth Form Science , Oxford : Oxford University Department of Educational Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Thomson Report . 1918 . “ Report of the Committee on the Position of Natural Science in the Educational System of Great Britain ” . In Natural Science in Education , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. 1986a . Secondary science laboratory activities . European Journal of Science Education , 8 : 199 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. 1986b . Student task involvement and achievement in process-oriented science activities . Science Education , 70 : 61 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. 1987 . Forces which shape the implemented curriculum in high school science and mathematics . Teaching and Teacher Education , 3 : 287 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. 1988 . Differential engagement of males and females in high school sciences . International Journal of Science Education , 10 : 239 – 252 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. 1990 . Research on science laboratory activities: in pursuit of better questions and answers to improve learning . School Science & Mathematics , 90 : 403 – 418 .
   Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. and Gallagher , J. J. 1987 . What happens in high school science classrooms? . Journal of Curriculum Studies , 19 : 549 – 560 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. and Garnett , P. 1987 . Gender related differences in classroom process activities . Science Education , 71 : 91 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin , K. , Pike , G. and Lacy , T. 1984 . Strategy analysis procedures for improving the quality of activityoriented science teaching . European Journal of Science Education , 6 : 79 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toothacker , W. S. 1983 . A critical look at undergraduate laboratory instruction . American Journal of Physics , 51 : 516 – 520 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tunnicliffe , S. D. 1989 . “ Challenge based science ” . In Science Education and the Quality of Life , Edited by: Honeyman , B. N. ICASE Yearbook, Australian Science Teachers Association/International Council of Associations for Science Education .
   Google Scholar
• Uzzell , P. S. 1978 . The changing aims of science teaching . School Science Review , 60 : 7 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Van Der Valk , T. 1989 . Waves or particles? The cathode ray debate in the classroom Edited by: Millar , R. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Van Praagh G. H. E. Armstrong and Science Education John Murray London 1973
   Google Scholar
• Wallace , J. 1986 . Social Interaction with Second Year Groups Doing Practical Science , University of Oxford . Unpublished MSc thesis
   Google Scholar
• Wandersee , J. H. 1990 . “ On the value and use of the history of science in teaching today's science: constructing historical vignettes ” . In More History and Philosophy of Science in Science Teaching , Edited by: Herget , D. E. Tallahassee : Florida State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Waring , M. 1985 . “ To make the mind strong rather than to make it full: elementary school science teaching 1870-1904 ” . In Social Histories of the Secondary Curriculum , Edited by: Goodson , I. F. Lewes : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Watts , M. and Ebbutt , D. 1988 . Sixthformers' views of their science education, 11-16 . International Journal of Science Education , 10 : 211 – 219 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinekamp , H. , Jansen , W. , Fickenfrerichs , H. and Peper , R. 1987 . Does unconscious behaviour of teachers cause chemistry lessons to be unpopular with girls? . International Journal of Science Education , 9 : 281 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch , W. W. , Klopfer , L. E. , Aikenhead , G. S. and Robinson , J. T. 1981 . The role of inquiry in science education: analysis and recommendation . Science Education , 65 : 33 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Wellington , J. J. 1981 . What's supposed to happen, Sir? Some problems with discovery learning . School Science Review , 63 : 167 – 173 .
   Google Scholar
• Wellington , J. J. 1988 . The place of process in physics education . Physics Education , 23 : 150 – 155 .
   Google Scholar
• Wellington , J. J. 1989 . Skills and proceses in science education: an introduction Edited by: Wellington , J. J. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• West , R. W. 1972 . Objectives for practical work in school chemistry . School Science Review , 54 : 148 – 157 .
   Google Scholar
• White , R. T. 1979 . Relevance of practical work to comprehension in physics . Physics Education , 14 : 384 – 387 .
   Google Scholar
• White , R. T. 1991 . Episodes and the purpose and conduct of practical work Edited by: Woolnough , B. E. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Wightman , T. , Green , P. and Scott , p. 1986 . The Construction of Meaning and Conceptual Change in Classroom Settings: Case Studies on the Particulate Nature of Matter , Leeds : Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds .
   Google Scholar
• Winchester , I. 1990 . Thought experiments and conceptual revision . Studies in Philosophy and Education , 10 : 73 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , G. , Murray , F. and Poole , S. 1992 . Creativity in the classroom . School Science Review , 74 : 17 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. E. 1986 . The assessment of practical work . Physics Education , 21 : 195 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. E. 1988a . Physics Teaching in Schools 1960-85: Of People, Policy and Power , Lewes : Falmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. E. 1988b . Reductio ad absurdum? . Physics Education , 23 : 1 – 2 .
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. E. 1989 . Towards a holistic view of processes in science education Edited by: Wellington , J. J. op. cit.
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. and Allsop , T. 1985 . Practical Work in Science , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Woolnough , B. E. and Toh , K. A. 1990 . Alternative approaches to assessment of practical work in science . School Science Review , 71 : 127 – 131 .
   Google Scholar
• Yager , R. E. , Englen , H. B. and Snider , B.c. F. 1969 . Effects of laboratory and demonstration methods upon the outcomes of instruction in secondary biology . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 6 : 76 – 86 .
   Google Scholar
• Zilbersztain , A. and Gilbert , J. 1981 . Does practice in the laboratory fit the spirit? . Australian Science Teachers Journal , 27 : 39 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Ziman , J. M. 1980 . Teaching and Learning About Science and Society , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zingaro , J. and Collette , A. 1968 . A statistical comparison between inductive and traditional laboratories in college physical science . Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 5 : 269 – 275 .
   Google Scholar