Educational Dependency: a critique

NOTES AND REFERENCES

• See, for instance, Lichtheim, G. (1971) Imperialism pp. 104‐112 (London, Allen Lane,); Brown, Barratt, M. A critique of Marxist theories of imperialism, in: Owen, R. & Sutcliffe, B. (Eds) (1972) Studies in the Theory of Imperialism pp. 52‐54 (London, Longman)
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• O'Brien , P. J. 1975 . “ A critique of Latin‐American theories of dependency ” . In Beyond the Sociology of Development , Edited by: Oxaal. , I. , Barnett , T. and Booth , D. London : Routledge & Kegan Paul . See
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• Especially, Frank, A. G. (1967) Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin‐America (New York, Monthly Review Press). See also Booth, D. Andre Gunder Frank: an introduction and appreciation, in: Oxaal, et al. (1975) op. cit.
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• For instance, Alavi, H. & Khusro, A.(1962) Pakistan: the burden of US aid, New University Thought, Vol. 2. No. 4; Shivji, I. (1974) Tanzania: the silent class struggle in: The Silent Class Struggle (Dar es Salaam; Tanzania Publishing House)
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• For instance, Galtung, J. (1972) A structural theory of imperialism. The African Review Vol. 1, No. 4. Sivanandan, A. (1976) Race, class and the state, Race and Class Vol. 17, No. 4; Castles, S. D. & Kosack, G. (1973) Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe (Oxford, Oxford University Press); Seers, D.et al. (Eds) (1979) Underdeveloped Europe (Brighton, Harvester Press).
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• Frank . op. cit. , 311 – 313 .
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• Frank , A. G. 1970 . “ The development of underdevelopment ” . In Imperialism and Underdevelopment: a reader , Edited by: Rhodes , R. I. 7 – 9 . New York : Monthly Review Press .
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• Frank , A. G. 1967 . op. cit. 7 – 8 . 115 – 118 .
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• Baran , P. 1957 . The Political Economy of Growth , New York : Monthly Review Press . Frank admitted his debt to BaranP.1957The Political Economy of GrowthNew YorkMonthly Review Press see Frank, A. G. (1967) op. cit., pp. xi‐xvii.
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• Rostow , W. W. 1971 . The Stages of Economic Growth , 2nd edn , London : Cambridge University Press .
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• Frank . 1970 . op. cit. 15 – 12 .
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• Cardoso , F. H. 1972 . Dependency and development in Latin‐America . New Left Review , 74 For example, Cardoso F. H. (1972) Dependency and development in Latin‐AmericaNew Left Review 74 Cardoso, F. H. & Faletto, E. (1979) Dependency and Development in Latin‐America (Berkeley, University of California Press)
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• Frank . 1967 . op. cit. , : xv – xvii . 211 270
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• Nyerere, J. K. (1968) Ujamaa: essays in socialism (Dar es Salaam, Oxford University Press), pp. 44‐75. Our education must be for liberation pp. 2‐7 (Dar es Salaam, mimeo), Freire, P. (1970) The Pedagogy of the Oppressed pp. 31‐44 (Harmondsworth, Penguin); UNESCO, Thinking Ahead, pp. 106‐110 (Paris, UNESCO); Haddad, W. D. (1981) The World Bank's education sector policy paper: a summary Comparative Education Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 127‐139
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• Ibid 128 135
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• Ibid 128
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• Carnoy , M. 1974 . Educational as Cultural Imperialism , 18 – 19 . New York : McKay . Altbach, P. G. (1977) Servitude of mind: education, dependency and neo‐colonialism, Teacher's College Record, Vol. 79, No. 2. p. 195
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• Carnoy , M. 1974 . op. cit. 55 70 – 72 . Altbach, P. G. & Kelly, G. (1976) Education and Colonialism, pp. 30, 39 (London, Longman)
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• Ibid 30 – 31 . 301 – 325 .
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• Ibid 35
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• Altbach . 1976 . op. cit. 197 Carnoy, (1974), op. cit., pp. 50‐51, 57; Mazrui, A. A. (1975) The African university as a multinational corporation: problems of penetration and dependency, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 45, No. 2; Berman, E. H. (1979) Foundations, United States foreign policy, African education, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 49, No. 2; (1980) The extension of ideology Comparative Education Review, Vol. 26, No. 1; Arnove, R. (1980) Education and world systems analysis, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 24, No. 1
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• Cardoso , F. H. 1972 . op. cit 89 Lall, S. (1975) Is “Dependence” a useful concept in analysing underdevelopment, World Development, Vol. 3, Nos. 11 and 12
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• Warren , B. 1973 . Imperialism and capitalist industrialisation . New Left Review , 81 and (1980) Imperialism: Pioneer of Capitalism (London, Verso); Palma, G. (1978) Dependency: a formal theory of underdevelopment or a methodology for the analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment. World Development Vol. 6, (Nos7/8), pp. 899‐1006. Lall, (1975) op. cit.
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• Warren . 1973 . op. cit , : 7 – 10 .
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• The World Bank . 1981 . World Development Report 1981 , 136 – 137 . Washington, D.C. : World Bank . Fifteen out of 26 non‐European, non‐communist, oil importing countries with populations of more than 10 million people achieved a higher rate of growth of GNP between 1970 and 1979 than France (3.7% per annum), which was the highest of all the Western capitalist countries. These growth rates refer to the total GNP of each country. Since the expansion of population has been greater in less developed countries, the per capita growth rate is much lower‐‐so that the gap in living standards between the poor and rich countries has not narrowed so significantly. This is, however, irrelevant to the argument about economic growth as Warren has demonstrated. Even so, 10 of the 26 countries achieved higher rates of growth per capita than the USA (2.4% per annum) between 1960 and 1979, ibid., pp. 134‐135
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• The rates of growth of GNP between 1970 and 1979 were South Korea 10.3%, Brazil 8.7%, Thailand 7.7%, Egypt 7.6%, Kenya 6.5%, Philippines 6.2%, Morocco 6.1%, and Columbia 6.0% compared to Japan 5.2%, ibid., pp. 136‐139
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• Warren, B. (1973), op. cit, pp.5‐7. In the 1970s, nine of the 26 larger Mess‐developed'countries (see above) have had higher rates of growth of manufacturing industry than Japan (9.4%), 14 higher rates than France (3.7%) and 15 higher rates than the USA (2.9%) and West Germany (2.8%). World Bank, op. cit, pp. 136‐137. Manufacturing industry in the developing countries as a whole grew at more than twice the rate of that of OECD countries between 1970 and 1976 (1980) North‐South: a programme for survival (Brandt Report), p. 176 (London, Pan)
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• Warren (1973) op. cit, p. 4; Cardoso (1972) op. cit, pp. 88‐89; Cardoso & Faletto (1979) op. cit., pp. 159‐161
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• Warren (1972) op. cit, pp. 42‐44; Palma (1978) op. cit, pp. 886‐896; Lall (1975) op. cit, p. 807
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• Cardoso (1972) op. cit, p. 93
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• Lall (1975) op. cit. p. 807
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• Haddad, op. cit, pp. 130, 133
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• Fry , G. W. 1981 . Schooling, development and inequality: old myths and realities . Harvard Educational Review , 51 ( 1 ) : 107 – 116 . The claim that social inequality is linked most strongly with dependency is weakened considerably by the admission that there are also high correlations between inequality and degrees of industrialisation and urbanisation
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• Seers , eds. 1979 . op. cit. For instance
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• Warren . 1973 . op. cit.
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• Cardoso and Falletto . op. cit. 183 – 188 .
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• Lall . 1975 . op. cit. 804
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• Ibid.
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• Ibid.
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• Eisemon , T. O. 1981 . Scientific life in Indian and African universities: a comparative study of peripherality in science . Comparative Education Review , 25 ( 2 ) : 164 – 183 . It is of interest that India‐‐despite its low GNP and long colonial experience‐‐has achieved a relatively high degree of independence in some aspects of her educational system, including scientific research. See
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• Frank . 1967 . op. cit. , : 281 – 318 .
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• Warren . 1973 . op. cit. , : 10 – 16 . 20 – 30 .
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• Of the most widely cited works on educational dependency, Carnoy (1974) op. cit., deals most fully with colonial Africa and India and with ‘internal colonialism’ in the United States. The chapters on Latin‐American and on U.S. neocolonialism deal with education very superficially. Altbach & Kelly (1976) op. cit., in their introduction give much attention to neo‐colonialism and dependence, but the substantive chapters deal mainly with colonies, states that had recently gained independence, and groups within the United States (the chapter on Peru used a rather different theoretical framework); Berman, op. cit., deals mainly with British colonies in Africa before and immediately after independence
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• Cardoso, op. cit., p. 93; Cardoso & Fletto, op. cit., pp. 173‐175
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• For instance Carnoy, op. cit., pp. 59‐60
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• Clignet , R. 1971 . Damned if you do. Damned if you don't: the dilemmas of coloniser‐colonised relations . Comparative Education Review , 15 ( 3 ) See Clignet R. (1971) Damned if you do. Damned if you don't: the dilemmas of coloniser‐colonised relationsComparative Education Review 15 3
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• Ibid. , Fanon, F. (1967) The Wretched of the Earth, pp. 1, 120, 136 (Harmondsworth, Penguin)
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• Warren (1973) op. cit., pp. 4, 40
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• IDS . 1980 . Is Dependency Dead? . IDS Bulletin , 12 ( 1 )
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• The role of colonial education in stimulating nationalist movements has been played down by educational dependency writers‐‐e.g. Carnoy, op. cit., pp. 16‐17. However, this ‘danger’ was perceived by colonial administrators especially in the 1920s. In African states in the 1960s it was claimed frequently that students who studied in the United States came back convinced socialists while those who went to the Soviet Union returned as strong advocates of Western capitalism
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• Van Den Berghe , P. L. 1973 . Power and Privilege at an African University , 122 – 124 . 137 64 London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
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• Altbach and Kelly . op. cit. 37 – 38 . 306 – 309 .
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• Van Den Berghe . op. cit.
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• Spaulding , S. 1981 . Needed research on the impact of international assistance organisation in the development education . Comparative Education , 17 ( 2 ) : 207 – 213 . There have been calls for more analysis of the internal politics of educational aid providing organisations
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• Cardoso . op. cit. , 93
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