Accumulation by dispossession and African seeds: colonial institutions trump seed business law

References

• Acemoglu, D., and J. A. Robinson. 2012. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty. London: Profile Books.
   Google Scholar
• Adebola, T. 2019. “Examining Plant Variety Protection in Nigeria: Realities, Obligations and Prospects.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property 22 (1–2): 36–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AFSA. 2017. Resisting Corporate Takeover of African Seed Systems and Building Farmer Managed Seed Systems for Food Sovereignty in Africa. Kampala: African Food Sovereignty Alliance (AFSA).
   Google Scholar
• AICB. 2015. Mémorandum sur la Production et la Commercialisation du Coton Génétiquement Modifé au Burkina Faso. Ouagadougou: Association Interprofessionnelle du Coton du Burkina (AICB).
   Google Scholar
• AICB, S.G. 2008. Note d’Information sur la filière coton du Burkina. Ouagadougou: Association Interprofessionnelle du Coton du Burkina (AICB).
   Google Scholar
• Aker, J. C., S. Block, V. Ramachandran, and C. P. Timmer. 2011. West African Experience with the World Rice Crisis, 2007-2008. CGD Working Paper 242. Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, C. 1995. “Understanding African Politics.” Review of African Political Economy 22 (65): 301–320.
   Google Scholar
• APBREBES. 2019. A Dysfunctional Plant Variety Protection System: Ten Years of UPOV Implementation in Francophone Africa. APBREBES Working Paper. Bonn: Association for Plant Breeding for the Benefit of Society (APBREBES).
   Google Scholar
• APS. 2015. “Le Sénégal membre du système de contrôle de la qualité des semences de l’OCDE.” Portail agroalimentaire du Sénégal, June 8.
   Google Scholar
• Baffes, J. 2005. “The ‘Cotton Problem’.” The World Bank Research Observer 20 (1): 109–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, R. H. 2014. Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Beck, L. 2008. Brokering Democracy in Africa - The Rise of Clientelist Democracy in Senegal. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Beckert, S. 2015. Empire of Cotton: A New History of Global Capitalism. London: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Berazneva, J., and D. R. Lee. 2013. “Explaining the African Food Riots of 2007–2008: An Empirical Analysis.” Food Policy 39: 28–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bern Declaration. 2014. Owning Seeds, Accessing Food. Zurich: The Bern Declaration.
   Google Scholar
• Besen, S. M., and L. J. Raskind. 1991. “An Introduction to the Law and Economics of Intellectual Property.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1): 3–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birner, R., and D. Resnick. 2010. “The Political Economy of Policies for Smallholder Agriculture.” World Development 38 (10): 1442–1452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blakeney, M. 2009. Intellectual Property Rights and Food Security. Wallingford: CABI.
   Google Scholar
• Blakeney, M., and G. Mengistie. 2011a. “Intellectual Property Policy Formulation in LDCs in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Journal of International and Comparative Law 19 (1): 66–98.
   Google Scholar
• Blakeney, M., and G. Mengistie. 2011b. “Intellectual Property and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property 14 (3–4): 238–264.
   Google Scholar
• Boone, C. 1990. “The Making of a Rentier Class: Wealth Accumulation and Political Control in Senegal.” Journal of Development Studies 26 (3): 425–449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, C. 2006. Merchant Capital and the Roots of State Power in Senegal, 1930-1985. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carayol, R. 2016. “OGM : au Burkina, les fausses promesses de Monsanto”. Jeune Afrique, May 11.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J. 2005. “The Parable of the Seeds: Interpreting the Plant Variety Protection Act in Furtherance of Innovation Policy.” Notre Dame Law Review 81 (1): 105–166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clavel, D. 2016. “Afrique : une Politique Semencière Sous Influence.” Natures Sciences Sociétés 24 (2): 168–172.
   Google Scholar
• Colen, L., M. Maertens, and J. Swinnen. 2012. “Private Standards, Trade and Poverty: GlobalGAP and Horticultural Employment in Senegal.” The World Economy 35 (8): 1073–1088.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, F. 2002. Africa Since 1940: The Past of the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Correa, C. M. 2001. “The TRIPS Agreement: How Much Room for Manoeuvre?” Journal of Human Development 2 (1): 79–107.
   Google Scholar
• Correa, C. M., S. Shashikant, and F. Meienberg. 2015. Plant Variety Protection in Developing Countries: A Tool for Designing a Sui Generis Plant Variety Protection System: An Alternative to UPOV 1991. Bonn: Association for Plant Breeding for the Benefit of Society (APBREBES).
   Google Scholar
• Coulibaly, M., P. Claeys, and A. Berson. 2021. “The Right to Seeds and Legal Mobilization for the Protection of Peasant Seed Systems in Mali.” Journal of Human Rights Practice 12 (3): 479–500.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cullet, P. 2004. “Intellectual Property Rights and Food Security in the South.” Journal of World Intellectual Property 3: 261–286.
   Google Scholar
• Dakaractu. 2018. “Modou Thiam, président de l’Union nationale interprofessionnelle des semences : ‘ On aimerait que le paiement des semenciers puisse être anticipé … Sinon cela aura un impact sur la collecte … ’” Dakaractu, April 24.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, M. H. 2003. “Some Realism about Indigenism: Traditional Knowledge, Intellectual Property, and Indigenous Culture.” Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 11 (2): 815–830.
   Google Scholar
• Deere, C. 2009. The Implementation Game: The TRIPS Agreement and the Global Politics of Intellectual Property Reform in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• De Graeve, M., W. Elsen, and A. Razac Napon. 2016. “De katoenconnectie in Burkina Faso: ‘Monsanto is vertrokken, maar mijn problemen blijven’”. MO*, November 20. https://www.mo.be/longread/burkina-faso-monsanto-is-vertrokken-maar-mijn-problemen-blijven.
   Google Scholar
• De Schutter, O. 2009. Seed Policies and the Right to Food: Enhancing Agrobiodiversity and Encouraging Innovation. Geneva: Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food to the General Assembly of the United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• De Schutter, O. 2011. “The Right of Everyone to Enjoy the Benefits of Scientific Progress and the Right to Food: From Conflict to Complementarity.” Human Rights Quarterly 33 (2): 304–350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diallo, Y. 2018. Identifying Leading Seed Companies in Western and Central Africa. Amsterdam: Access to Seeds Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Diop, A. N. 2015. Subventions des intrants agricoles au Sénégal: Controverses et Réalités. Dakar: Initiative Prospective Agricole et Rurale (IPAR).
   Google Scholar
• Dowd-Uribe, B. 2014. “Liberalisation Failed: Understanding Persistent State Power in the Burkinabè Cotton Sector from 1990 to 2004.” Development Policy Review 32 (5): 545–566.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowd-Uribe, B., and M. A. Schnurr. 2016. “Briefing: Burkina Faso’s Reversal on Genetically Modified Cotton and the Implications for Africa.” African Affairs 115 (458): 161–172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downes, G. 2004. “TRIPS and Food Security: Implications of the WTO’s TRIPs Agreement for Food Security in the Developing World.” British Food Journal 106 (5): 366–379.
   Google Scholar
• Drahos, P. 2010. The Global Governance of Knowledge: Patent Offices and Their Clients. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Du Plessis, E. D., S. B. Brown, and D. F. Tanziani, eds. 2012. Adams & Adams Practical Guide to Intellectual Property in Africa. Pretoria: Pretoria University Law Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dutfield, G. 2008. “Turning Plant Varieties Into Intellectual Property: The UPOV Convention.” In The Future Control of Food, edited by G. Tansey, and T. Rajotte, 27–47. London: Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. 2015. Voluntary Guide for National Seed Policy Formulation. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
   Google Scholar
• FAO Lex (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2019. Accessed October 2019. http://www.fao.org/faolex/country-profiles/en/.
   Google Scholar
• Fatton, R. 1986. “Clientelism and Patronage in Senegal.” African Studies Review 29 (4): 61–78.
   Google Scholar
• Felicien, A., C. M. Schiavoni, E. Ochoa, S. Saturno, E. Omaña, A. Requena, and W. Camacaro. 2020. “Exploring the ‘Grey Areas’ of State-Society Interaction in Food Sovereignty Construction: The Battle for Venezuela’s Seed law.” Journal of Peasant Studies 47 (4): 648–673.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsyth, M., and S. Farran. 2013. “Intellectual Property and Food Security in Least Developed Countries.” Third World Quarterly 34 (3): 516–533.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graff, G. D., and P. G. Pardey. 2019. “Inventions and Patenting in Africa: Empirical Trends from 1970 to 2010.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property, 23 (1–2), 40–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRAIN. 2005a. “Seed Laws: Imposing Agricultural Apartheid.” Seedling, July, 1–3.
   Google Scholar
• GRAIN. 2005b. “Africa’s Seed Laws: Red Carpet for the Corporations.” Seedling, July, 28–35.
   Google Scholar
• Halewood, M. 2016. Farmers’ Crop Varieties and Farmers’ Rights: Challenges in Taxonomy and Law. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Harries, A., and J. Cortes. 2007a. Procedure Manual for Seed Certification and Accreditation. Ames, IA: Seed Science Centre - Iowa State University.
   Google Scholar
• Harries, A., and J. Cortes. 2007b. Procedure Manual for Variety Registration in the National Catalogue for Crop Varieties in West African Countries. Ames, IA: Seed Science Centre - Iowa State University.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey, D. 2003. The New Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey, D. 2004. “The “New Imperialism”: Accumulation by Dispossession.” Actuel Marx 35 (1): 71–90.
   Google Scholar
• Haugen, H. M. 2015. “Inappropriate Processes and Unbalanced Outcomes: Plant Variety Protection in Africa Goes Beyond UPOV 1991 Requirements.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property 18 (5): 196–216.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headey, D., and S. Fan. 2010. Reflections on the Global Food Crisis: How Did it Happen? How Has it Hurt? and How Can we Prevent the Next One? Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
   Google Scholar
• Helfer, L. R. 2004. “Regime Shifting: The TRIPs Agreement and New Dynamics of International Intellectual Property Lawmaking.” Yale Journal of International Law 29 (1): 1–85.
   Google Scholar
• Holmén, H. 2005. “The State and Agricultural Intensification in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In The African Food Crisis: Lessons from the Asian Green Revolution, edited by G. Djurfeldt, H. Holmén, M. Jirström, and R. Larsson, 87–112. Wallingford: CABI.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson. 2008. “Burkina Faso Seeks to Win Back Title as Africa’s Top Cotton Producer.” Wikileaks Public Library of US Diplomacy. Burkina Faso Ouagadougou, No. 08OUAGADOUGOU596_a.
   Google Scholar
• JeuneAfrique. 2015. “OGM – Doulaye Traoré : « Le Burkina Faso est important dans la stratégie africaine de Monsanto »” JeuneAfrique.com, June 12.
   Google Scholar
• Jika, N., L. C. Philippe, and G. Robert. 2008. Regional Catalogue of Species and Plant Varieties of the ECOWAS-UEMOA-CILSS Region 2008. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
   Google Scholar
• Jika, N., L. C. Philippe, and G. Robert. 2016. Regional Catalogue of Species and Plant Varieties of the ECOWAS-UEMOA-CILSS Region 2016. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
   Google Scholar
• Kabau, T., and F. Cheruiyot. 2019. “The Arusha Protocol on Plant Varieties Protection: Balancing Breeders’ and Farmers’ Rights for Food Security in Africa.” Queen Mary Journal of Intellectual Property 9 (3): 303–325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keirsbilck, B., W. Devroe, and E. Claes, eds. 2009. Facing the Limits of the Law. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, A. F. 1989. Seed Planning and Policy for Agricultural Production. The Roles of Government and Private Enterprise in Supply and Distribution. London: Belhaven Press, Pinter Publishers Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Kloppenburg, J. 2010. “Impeding Dispossession, Enabling Repossession: Biological Open Source and the Recovery of Seed Sovereignty.” Journal of Agrarian Change 10 (3): 367–388.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kongolo, T. 2013. “Historical Developments of Industrial Property Laws in Africa.” The WIPO Journal 5 (1): 105–117.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhlmann, K. 2015. Harmonizing Regional Seed Regulations in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Assessment. Basel: The Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhlmann, K., and Y. Zhou. 2015. Seed Policy Harmonization in the EAC and COMESA: The Case of Kenya. Basel: The Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhlmann, K., and Y. Zhou. 2019. Seed Policy Harmonization in COMESA AND SADC: The Case of Zambia. Basel: The Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture.
   Google Scholar
• Kuhlmann, K., Y. Zhou, A. N. Naggayi, and H. Lui. 2018. Seed Policy Harmonization in ECOWAS: The Case of Nigeria. Basel: The Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture.
   Google Scholar
• Langyintuo, A. S., W. Mwangi, A. O. Diallo, J. MacRobert, J. Dixon, and M. Bänziger. 2010. “Challenges of the Maize Seed Industry in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Compelling Case for Private–Public Intervention to Promote Growth.” Food Policy 35 (4): 323–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layzell, C. 2019. Index Synthesis Report. Amsterdam: Access to Seeds Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Levien, M. 2012. “The Land Question: Special Economic Zones and the Political Economy of Dispossession in India.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (3–4): 933–969.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levrat, R. 2009. Le coton dans la zone franc depuis 1950: Un succès remis en cause. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan.
   Google Scholar
• Louwaars, N. P., and W. S. de Boef. 2012. “Integrated Seed Sector Development in Africa: A Conceptual Framework for Creating Coherence Between Practices, Programs, and Policies.” Journal of Crop Improvement 26 (1): 39–59.
   Google Scholar
• Louwaars, N. P., W. S. de Boef, and J. Edeme. 2013. “Integrated Seed Sector Development in Africa: A Basis for Seed Policy and Law.” Journal of Crop Improvement 27 (2): 186–214.
   Google Scholar
• Louwaars, N. P., R. Tripp, D. Eaton, V. Henson-Apollonio, R. Hu, M. Mendoza, F. Muhhuku, S. Pal, and J. Wekundah. 2005. Impacts of Strengthened Intellectual Property Rights Regimes on the Plant Breeding Industry in Developing Countries. Wageningen: Wageningen University and Research.
   Google Scholar
• Luna, J. K. 2020. “Peasant Essentialism in GMO Debates: Bt Cotton in Burkina Faso.” Journal of Agrarian Change 20 (4): 579–597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, G., and G. Crawford. 2011. “Democratization in Africa 1990–2010: An Assessment.” Democratization 18 (2): 275–310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masinjila, S., and M. Mayet. 2018. The SADC PVP Protocol-Blueprint for Uptake of UPOV 1991 in Africa. Johannesburg: African Centre for Biodiversity (ACB).
   Google Scholar
• Mayet, M. 2015. “Seed Sovereignty in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.” Development 58 (2): 299–305.
   Google Scholar
• McGuire, S., and L. Sperling. 2016. “Seed Systems Smallholder Farmers use.” Food Security 8 (1): 179–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mengistie, G. 2003. The Impact of the International Patent System on Developing Countries. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO).
   Google Scholar
• Mengistie, G. 2010. The Patent System in Africa. Addis Abeba: UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA).
   Google Scholar
• Mgbeoji, I. 2014a. “African Patent Offices Not Fit for Purpose.” In Innovation & Intellectual Property: Collaborative Dynamics in Africa, edited by J. de Beer, C. Armstrong, C. Oguamanam, and T. Schonwetter, 234–247. Cape Town: UCT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mgbeoji, I. 2014b. “The Comprador Complex: Africa’s IPR Elite, Neo-Colonialism and the Enduring Control of African IPR Agenda by External Interests.” Intellectual Property Journal 26: 313–330.
   Google Scholar
• Mkandawire, T. 2015. “Neopatrimonialism and the Political Economy of Economic Performance in Africa: Critical Reflections.” World Politics 67 (3): 563–612.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller, J. M. 2009. Patent Law. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business.
   Google Scholar
• Mukuka, J. 2014. COMESA Seed Harmonization Implementation Plan. Lusaka: Alliance for Commodity Trade in Eastern and Southern Africa (ACTESA).
   Google Scholar
• Munyi, P., and B. De Jonge. 2015. “Farmers’ and Breeders’ Rights: Bridging Access to, and IP Protection of, Plant Varieties in Africa: African Intersections between Intellectual Property Rights and Knowledge Access.” The African Journal of Information and Communication 16: 16–25.
   Google Scholar
• Mwila, G. 2016. “Commentary on the Zambian Plant Breeder’s Rights Act.” In Farmers’ Crop Varieties and Farmers’ Rights, edited by M. Halewood, 319–323. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ncube, C. B. 2018. “Three Centuries and Counting.” In The Oxford Handbook of Intellectual Property Law, edited by R. Dreyfuss, and J. Pila, 409–430. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• North, D. C. 1991. “Institutions.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1): 97–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• North, D. C., J. J. Wallis, and B. R. Weingast. 2009. Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2017. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 6. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2018. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 7. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2019a. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 8. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2019b. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 9. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2020a. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 10/1. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• OAPI. 2020b. Obtentions Végétales (OV) 2. Yaoundé: Service de la Documentation, de la Publication et de la Diffusion de l’Information Technique de l’O.A.P.I.
   Google Scholar
• O’Grady Walshe, C. 2019. Globalisation and Seed Sovereignty in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Oguamanam, C. 2004. “Protecting Indigenous Knowledge in International Law: Solidarity Beyond the Nation-State.” Law Text Culture 8: 191–230.
   Google Scholar
• Oguamanam, C. 2008. “Local Knowledge as Trapped Knowledge: Intellectual Property, Culture, Power and Politics.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property 11 (1): 29–57.
   Google Scholar
• Oguamanam, C. 2015. “Breeding Apples for Oranges: Africa’s Misplaced Priority Over Plant Breeders’ Rights: Africa and Plant Breeders’ Rights.” The Journal of World Intellectual Property 18 (5): 165–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohnesorge, J. K. M. 2014. “Developing Development Theory: Law and Development Orthodoxies and the Northeast Asian Experience.” University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law 28 (2): 219–308.
   Google Scholar
• Okediji, R. L. 2019. “A Tiered Approach to Rights in Traditional Knowledge.” Washburn Law Journal 58 (2): 271–322.
   Google Scholar
• Oya, C. 2006. “Accumulation Regimes, Democracy and Class Structures in Senegal.” Afriche e Orienti VIII (3–4): 22–44.
   Google Scholar
• Peschard, K. 2014. “Farmers’ Rights and Food Sovereignty: Critical Insights from India.” Journal of Peasant Studies 41 (6): 1085–1108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pistor, K. 2019. The Code of Capital: How the Law Creates Wealth and Inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pouris, A., and A. Pouris. 2011. “Patents and Economic Development in South Africa: Managing Intellectual Property Rights.” South African Journal of Science 107 (11–12): 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rangnekar, D. 2013. “The Cunning State of Farmers’ Rights in India: In: Conference Paper #73.” Presented at the Food Sovereignty: An International Dialogue, New Haven, Conn, Yale University.
   Google Scholar
• Raustiala, K., and D. G. Victor. 2004. “The Regime Complex for Plant Genetic Resources.” International Organization 58 (2): 277–309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roffe, P. 2008. “Bringing Minimum Global Intellectual Property Standards Into Agriculture: The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).” In The Future Control of Food, edited by G. Tansey, and T. Rajotte, 48–68. London: Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Rutsaert, P., and J. Donovan. 2020. “Exploring the Marketing Environment for Maize Seed in Kenya: How Competition and Consumer Preferences Shape Seed Sector Development.” Journal of Crop Improvement 34 (4): 486–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanou, E. I. R., G. Gheysen, B. Koulibaly, C. Roelofs, and S. Speelman. 2018. “Farmers’ Knowledge and Opinions Towards Bollgard II® Implementation in Cotton Production in Western Burkina Faso.” New Biotechnology 42: 33–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senegalese Government. 2009. Programme National d’Autosuffisance en Riz: Stratégie Nationale de Développement de la Riziculture. Dakar: Ministère de l’Agriculture et de l’Equipement Rural (MAER).
   Google Scholar
• Senegalese Government. 2011. Plan d’investissement 2011-2015 du Programme National d’Investissment Agricole (PNIA). Dakar: Ministère de l’Agriculture et de l’Equipement Rural (MAER).
   Google Scholar
• Senegalese Government. 2014. Programme d’Accélération de la Cadence de l’Agriculture Sénégalaise (PRACAS). Dakar: Ministère de l’Agriculture et de l’Equipement Rural (MAER).
   Google Scholar
• Showalter, A. M., S. Heuberger, B. E. Tabashnik, and Y. Carrière. 2009. “A Primer for Using Transgenic Insecticidal Cotton in Developing Countries.” Journal of Insect Science 9 (1): 1–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sperling, L., T. Remington, and J. Haugen. 2006. Practise Brief 2. Seed Aid for Seed Security–Advice for Practitioners: Ten Practice Briefs–Using Seed Aid to Give Farmers Access to Seed of New Varieties. Baltimore: Catholic Relief Services. Palmira: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Oslo: Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) Norway.
   Google Scholar
• Stiglitz, J. E. 1999. “Knowledge as a Global Public Good.” In Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century, edited by I. Kaul, I. Grunberg, and M. A. Stern, 308–325. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thioub, I., M.-C. Diop, and C. Boone. 1998. “Economic Liberalization in Senegal: Shifting Politics of Indigenous Business Interests.” African Studies Review 41 (2): 63–89.
   Google Scholar
• Traoré, H., S. A. O. Héma, and K. Traoré. 2014. “Bt Cotton in Burkina Faso Demonstrates That Political Will is Key for Biotechnology to Benefit Commercial Agriculture in Africa.” In Biotechnology in Africa: Emergence, Initiatives and Future, edited by F. Wambugu, and D. Kamanga, 15–36. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Tripp, R., ed. 1997. New Seed and Old Laws. London: Practical Action Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Tripp, R., ed. 2009. Biotechnology and Agricultural Development: Transgenic Cotton, Rural Institutions and Resource-Poor Farmers. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Tripp, R., and C. Ragasa. 2015. Hybrid Maize Seed Supply in Ghana. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
   Google Scholar
• UNCTAD. 1975. The Role of the Patent System in the Transfer of Technology to Developing Countries. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
   Google Scholar
• UNDP. 2018. Human Development Indices and Indicators - 2018 Statistical Update. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
   Google Scholar
• UPOV Plant Variety Protection Statistics (Union internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Végétales). 2019. Accessed August 2019. https://www.upov.int/databases/en/statistics.html.
   Google Scholar
• Varella, M. D. 2013. “Intellectual Property and Agriculture: The Case on Soybeans and Monsanto Essay.” Journal of Technology Law & Policy 18 (1): 59–82.
   Google Scholar
• VIB. 2016. From Plant to Crop: The Past, Present and Future of Plant Breeding. Ghent: Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB) - International Plant Biotechnology Outreach.
   Google Scholar
• VIB. 2017. Cotton in Africa. Ghent: Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB) - International Plant Biotechnology Outreach.
   Google Scholar
• Vitale, J. 2018. Economic Importance of Cotton in Burkina Faso. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO).
   Google Scholar
• VivAfrik. 2020. “SEDAB-SARL.” VivAfrik – Actualité. https://www.vivafrik.com/sedab-sarl-2.
   Google Scholar
• Wattnem, T. 2016. “Seed Laws, Certification and Standardization: Outlawing Informal Seed Systems in the Global South.” Journal of Peasant Studies 43 (4): 850–867.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessel, M., and P. M. F. Quist-Wessel. 2015. “Cocoa Production in West Africa, a Review and Analysis of Recent Developments.” NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 74–75: 1–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winston, E. I. 2008. “What if Seeds Were Not Patentable What ifs and Other Alternative Intellectual Property and Cyberlaw Stories.” Michigan State Law Review 2008 (1): 321–344.
   Google Scholar
• WIPO Lex (World Intellectual Property Organisation). Accessed October 2019. https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/main/legislation.
   Google Scholar
• Yankey, G. S.-A. 1986. “The Role of the International Patent System in the Transfer of Technology to West Africa: Case Studies: Ghana and Nigeria.” PhD diss., University of Warwick.
   Google Scholar
• Yauri, S. A. 2012. “The Patent System in Nigeria.” World Patent Information 34 (3): 213–215.
   Google Scholar