From ‘Abaixo’ to ‘chiefs of production’: Agrarian change in Nampula province, mozambique, 1975–87

References

• Sections I‐IV are alphabetically organized according to author or publication. Sources in the remaining sections appear in chronological order. Sources in section III appear under the government holding in which they were located at the time of research. Published and unpublished colonial sources appear in section IV.
   Google Scholar
• I. Books, chapters, articles and unpublished texts
   Google Scholar
• Adam , Yussuf . 1991 . “ ‘Historiadores e ideologos’ ” . In Moçambique ‐ 16 Anos de Historiographia: focos, problemas, metodologías, desafios para a decada de 90 , Edited by: José , Alexandrino and Meneses , Paula Maria G. Vol. 1 , Maputo : Colecção Painel Moçambicano .
   Google Scholar
• Watch , Africa . 1992 . Conspicuous Destruction: War, Famine and the Reform Process in Mozambique , New York : Human Rights Watch .
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , Jocelyn . 1994 . ‘Terra e autoridade política no pós‐guerra em Moçambique: o caso da Provincia de Manica’ . Arquixo (Maputo) , : 5 – 95 .
   Google Scholar
• Almeida, Eugenio Ferreira de, 1957, see section IV, sub‐section A.
   Google Scholar
• Arnfred , Signe . 1990 . “ ‘Notes on Gender and Modernization: Examples from Mozambique’ ” . In The Language of Development Studies (New Social Science Monographs) , Edited by: Arnfred , Signe and Bentzon , A.W. Copenhagen : Roskilde University Center, Development Studies Group .
   Google Scholar
• Baptista Lundin, Irae, 1992, see section II.
   Google Scholar
• Baptista Lundin Coloane , Irae . 1990 . “ ‘Uma visão sobre o problema da terra na zona de Namuno, Balama e Montepuez em Cabo Delgado: uma nova apreciação dos dados colhidos para a avaliação do projeto ARO‐NAMUNO’ ” . Maputo : Departamento de Arqueología e Antropología, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane .
   Google Scholar
• Bender , Gerald J. 1978 . Angola under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality , Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Coelho , Borges and Paulo , João . 1993 . “ ‘Protected Villages and Communal Villages in the Mozambican Province of Tete (1968–1982): A History of State Resettlement Policies, Development and War’ ” . University of Bradford . Ph.D. thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Coelho , Borges and Paulo , João . 1998 . ‘State Resettlement Policies in Post‐Colonial Rural Mozambique: The Impact of the Communal Village Programme on Tete Province, 1977–1982’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( l ) : 61 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen , Merle L. 1986 . “ ‘"Let's Build Agricultural Producer Co‐operatives”: Socialist Agricultural Development Strategy in Mozambique 1975–1985’ ” . University of Toronto . Ph.D. thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Bowen , Merle L. 2000 . The State Against the Peasantry: rural struggles in colonial and postcolonial Mozambique , Charlottesville, VA : University Press of Virginia .
   Google Scholar
• Bragança , Aquino de and Depelchin , Jacques . 1986 . ‘Da idealização da Frelimo à compreensão da historia de Moçambique’ . Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo) , : 29 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Luís de , B. Brito . 1988 . ‘Une relecture nécessaire: la genèse du parti‐État FRELIMO’ . Politique Africaine , : 15 – 27 . Branquinho, José Alberto Gomes de Melo, 1969, see section IV, sub‐section
   Google Scholar
• Brito , Luís de . 1991 . “ ‘Le Frelimo et la construction de l'état national au Mozambique: le sens de la référence au marxisme (1962–1983)’ ” . Vincennes : Université de Paris VIII . Ph.D. thesis.
   Google Scholar
• Brito João , Benedito . 1989 . “ ‘Abdul Kamal (1892–1966) et l'histoire du Chiure aux XIXe et XXe siècles: étude sur la chefferie traditionelle, les reséaux islamiques et la colonization Portuguese’ ” . Paris : le Diplome d'École des Haute Études en Sciences Sociales .
   Google Scholar
• Brito João , Benedito . 1993 . ‘Factores de reorganização das chefaturas no norte de Nampula e sul de Cabo Delgado na segunda metade do século XIX’ . Arquivo (Maputo) , : 175 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Cahen , Michel . 1987 . Mozambique: la revolution implosée , Paris : L'Harmattan .
   Google Scholar
• Cahen , Michel . 1988a . ‘Moçambique: a economía política de democracia, 1975–1984’ . Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos , : 297 – 305 .
   Google Scholar
• Cahen , Michel . 1988b . ‘La crise du nationalisme’ . Politique Africaine , : 2 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Cahen , Michel . 1989 . ‘Clarence‐Smith on Mozambique’ . Southern Africa Review of Books , Aug./Sept.
   Google Scholar
• Cahen , Michel . 1989/1990 . ‘Is Renamo a Popular Movement?’ . Southern African Review of Books , Dec/Jan.
   Google Scholar
• Capela , José and Medeiros , Eduardo . 1987 . O Tráfico de Escravos de Moçambique para as Ilhas do İndico, 1720–1902 , Primeira edição, Maputo : Imprensa Nacional de Moçambique .
   Google Scholar
• Casal , AdolfoYánez . 1988 . ‘A crise da produção familiar e as aldeias comunais em Moçambique’ . Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos , : 157 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Casal , AdolfoYánez . 1991 . ‘Discurso socialista e camponêses africanos: legitimação política‐ideologica da socialização rural em Moçambique (FRELIMO, 1965–1984)’ . Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos , 14 ( 15 ) : 35 – 76 .
   Google Scholar
• Centro de Estudos Africanos (CEA) . 1980 . “ ‘A transformação da agricultura familiar na Província de Nampula’ ” . Maputo : Universidade Eduardo Mondlane . Projecto de Estudo sobre a Produção de Algodão na Província de Nampula, Relatório 80/3,
   Google Scholar
• CEA . 1981 . “ ‘Cotton production in Mozambique: a survey, 1936–1979’ ” . In Projecto de Estudo sobre a Produção de Algodão , Maputo : Universidade Eduardo Mondlane .
   Google Scholar
• CEA . 1986 . “ ‘Poder popular e desagregação nas aldeias comunais do planalto de Mueda’ ” . Maputo : Centro de Estudos Africanos, Oficina de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane .
   Google Scholar
• Chanock , Martin . 1985 . Law, Custom and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Clarence‐Smith , Gervase . 1989a . ‘The Roots of the Mozambican Counter‐Revolution’ . Southern African Review of Books , April/May
   Google Scholar
• Clarence‐Smith , Gervase . 1989b . ‘Gervase Clarence‐Smith Replies’ . Southern African Review of Books , June/July
   Google Scholar
• Clarence‐Smith , Gervase . 1989c . ‘Gervase Clarence‐Smith Replies’ . Southern African Review of Books , Aug./Sept
   Google Scholar
• Cooperation Canada Mozambique (COCAMO) . 1988 . “ ‘The Economy of Mozambique’ ” . In COCAMO, Mozambique: Apartheid's Second Front. A Resource Kit , Ottawa : Canadian Council for International Cooperation .
   Google Scholar
• 1990 . ‘Cooperatives Warn Against Land Grab’ . Mozambiquefile ,
   Google Scholar
• Conceição , António Rafael Fernandes da . 1984 . ‘Les modes de destructuration sociale en Erati, 1926–1970: éléments sur les changements sociaux dans le Nord du Mozambique’, Mémoire de Recherche pour le Diplome en Anthropologie Sociale , Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales .
   Google Scholar
• Conceição , António Rafael Fernandes da . 1993 . “ ‘Entre mer et terre. Situations identitaires des populations côtières du nord Mozambicain (Cabo Delgado): 1929–1979’ ” . Paris : Université de Paris VIII, Saint‐Denis . Ph.D. thesis
   Google Scholar
• Cotta Mesquita, A., n.d. [1966], see section IV, sub‐section B.
   Google Scholar
• Darch , Colin . 1989 . ‘Are There Warlords in Provincial Mozambique? Questions of the Social Base of MNR Banditry’ . Review of African Political Economy , 45 ( 46 ) : 34 – 49 .
   Google Scholar
• Davies , Robert . 1986 . ‘Mozambique: What is South Africa's Strategy?’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 2 ( 3 )
   Google Scholar
• Deere , Carmen Diana . 1986 . “ ‘Agrarian Reform, Peasant and Rural Production, and the Organization of Production in the Transition to Socialism’ ” . In Transition and Development: Problems in Third World Socialism , Edited by: Fagen , Richard R. , Deere , Carmen Diana and Coraggio , José Luis . New York : Monthly Review Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dinerman , Alice E. 1998 . “ ‘Objects and Relations of State Rule: Official History, Revisionisms and Rural Political Authority in Post‐independence Mozambique, 1975–1994’ ” . University of Oxford . Ph.D. thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Dinerman , Alice . 2000 . ‘O surgimento dos antigos régulos como “chefes de produção” na Provincia de Nampula, 1975–1987’ . Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo) , forthcoming.
   Google Scholar
• Dolny , Helena . 1985 . “ ‘The Challenge of Agriculture’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1985].
   Google Scholar
• Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) . 1984 . Quarterly Economic Review of Tanzania, Mozambique , London : The Economist Publications . no. 3
   Google Scholar
• EIU . 1985 . Quarterly Economic Review of Tanzania, Mozambique , London : The Economist Publications . No.3,
   Google Scholar
• EIU . 1986 . Country Profile. Mozambique, 1986–87 , London : The Economist Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Egerö , Bertil . 1990 . Mozambique: A Dream Undone: The Political Economy of Democracy, 1975–84 , Uppsala : Scandinavian Institute of African Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo, José Bernardo de, 1962, see section IV, sub‐section A.
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo , José Bernardo de . 1976 . “ ‘Contributo para a reunião em Nampula com fins de programa de actuação futura para o desenvolvimento da agricultura em bases concretas de produção’ ” . private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo . Nampula, 6 de Março in J. B. de Faria Lobo, Relatónos e Contributos, Nampula, 5 Sept. 1982, unpublished volume,
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo , José Bernardo de . 1989 . “ ‘Contributo para a prevenção contra a fome em Moçambique. Alguns temas, Provincia de Nampula’ ” . private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo . unpublished pamphlet,
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo , José Bernardo de . “ ‘Breve resumo histórico’ ” . Edited by: de Faria Lobo , J.B. Monografía do Cajueiro . n.d.(a),
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo , José Bernardo de . “ ‘Apresentação e oferecimento’ ” . Edited by: de Faria Lobo , J.B. private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo . Monografía: Nampula I, Nampula, 17 de Agosto de 1986, unpublished volume,
   Google Scholar
• Fauvet , Paul . 1989 . ‘Clarence‐Smith on Mozambique’ . Southern Africa Review of Books , Aug./Sept.
   Google Scholar
• Fauvet , Paul . 1990 . ‘Clarence‐Smith on Mozambique’ . Southern Africa Review of Books , June/July
   Google Scholar
• Figueiredo, João de, 1938, see section IV, sub‐section B.
   Google Scholar
• First , Ruth . 1983 . Black Gold: The Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant , Sussex, UK : Harvester Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fortuna , Carlos . 1993 . O Fio da Meada: o algodão de Moçambique, Portugal e a economia‐mundo (1860–1960) , Porto : Ediçães Afrontamento .
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher , Tom . 1983 . Portugal: A Twentieth‐Century Interpretation , Manchester : Manchester University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1984 . “ ‘Structures précoloniales’ ” . Maputo : Université Eduardo Mondlane . Projet de recherche: Structure lignagère, économie domestique et développement rural dans le district du Erati, rapport n. 1, Département d'Archéologie et Anthropologie
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1985 . “ ‘Éléments d'une histoire de la famille en pays Makhuwa: de 1930 à nos jours’ ” . Maputo : Departamento de Arqueologia e Antropologia, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane .
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1987a . “ ‘Travail et symbole dans la société des Makhuwa’ ” . Paris : École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales . Ph.D. thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1987b . “ ‘A condição servil no país Makhuwa’ ” . In Trabalhos de Arqueología e Antropología , 31 – 54 . Maputo : Departamento de Arqueologia e Antropología, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane . No.4,
   Google Scholar
• ‘La condition servile en pays makhuwa’ . Cahiers d'Études africaines , 100 ( XXV‐4 ) 505 – 35 . Originally published in 1985 as
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1988 . ‘Fragments d'un discours du pouvoir (1975–1985): du bon usage d'une méconnaissance scientifique’ . Politique Africaine , : 71 – 85 .
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian . 1991 . A Causa das Armas: antropología da guerra contemporánea em Moçambique , Porto : Ediçães Afrontamento .
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian and Pedersen , Mögens . 1985 . “ ‘Transformação da organização social e do sistema agrário do campesinato no Distrito do Erati: processo de socialização do campo e diferenciação social’ ” . Maputo : Departamento de Arqueologia e Antropología, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane e o Departamento Rural, Ministério da Agricultura .
   Google Scholar
• Geffray , Christian and Pederson , Mögens . 1986 . ‘Sobre a guerra na Provincia de Nampula. Elementos de análise e hipóteses sobre as determinaçães e consequências socio‐económicas locais’ . Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos , 4 ( 5 ) : 303 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Gouveia, Mapril, 1968, see section IV, sub‐section B.
   Google Scholar
• Gray , Richard . 1980 . “ ‘Khalai‐khalai. História popular de Nampula’ ” . In Cadernos da Cultura Popular , Vol. 1 , Nampula : Direcção Provincial da Educação e Cultura . manuscript.
   Google Scholar
• Grest , Jeremy . 1986 . “ ‘Mozambique: A Decade of Independence’ ” . In Southern African Review (Johannesburg) Edited by: Moss , Glenn and Obery , Ingrid . 323 – 46 . No.3,
   Google Scholar
• Grest , Jeremy . 1995 . ‘Urban Management, Local Government Reform and the Democratization Process in Mozambique: Maputo City 1975–1990’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 21 ( l ) : 147 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grupo de Empresas João Ferreira dos Santos, Direcção Gérai de Produção, Nampula, 1985, Memo No.l/DGP/Conf., Ao Estado Maior da Economía, Província de Nampula, 4 de Setembro, ‘Assunto: Campanhas agrícolas. Contributo para a sua reestruturação’ (signed José Bernardo de Faria Lobo) in José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, Contributos, 1989, unpublished volume, private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo.
   Google Scholar
• Habermeier , Kurt . 1981 . ‘Cotton: From Concentrations to Collective Production’ . Mozambican Studies (English edition of Estudos Moçambicanos, Maputo) , : 36 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , Margaret . 1990 . ‘The Mozambican National Resistance Movement (Renamo): A Study in the Destruction of an African Country’ . Africa , 60 ( 1 ) : 39 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , Margaret and Young , Tom . 1997 . Confronting Leviathan: Mozambique since Independence , Athens, OH : Ohio University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hanlon , Joseph . 1984 . Mozambique: The Revolution under Fire , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hanlon , Joseph . 1986 . Beggar Your Neighbours: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa , Bloomington, IN : Bloomington Indiana Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hanlon , Joseph . 1991 . Mozambique: Who Calls the Shots? , London : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Hanlon , Joseph . 1996 . Peace without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique , Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , Laurence . 1980 . ‘Agricultural Co‐operatives and Development Policy in Mozambique’ . The Journal of Peasant Studies , 8 ( 3 ) : 338 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison , Graham . 1996 . ‘Democracy in Mozambique: The Significance of Multi‐Party Elections’ . Review of African Political Economy , : 19 – 35 .
   Google Scholar
• Hedges , David (coordenador) . 1993 . História de Moçambique, Vol.3. Moçambique no auge do colonialismo, 1930–1961 , Maputo : Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Departamento de História .
   Google Scholar
• Henriksen , Thomas H. 1983 . Revolution and Counterrevolution: Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964–1974 , Westport, CT : Greenwood Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hermele , Kenneth . 1988 . Land Struggles and Social Differentiation in Southern Mozambique. A Case Study of Chokwe, Limpopo 1950–1987 , Uppsala : Scandinavian Institute of African Studies . Research report No.82.
   Google Scholar
• Isaacman , Allen . 1985 . ‘Chiefs, Rural Differentiation and Peasant Protest: The Mozambican Forced Labour Regime, 1938–1961’ . African Economic History , : 15 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacman , Allen . 1992 . ‘Coercion, Paternalism and the Labour Process: The Mozambican Cotton Regime 1938–1961’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 18 ( 3 ) : 487 – 526 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacman , Allen . 1996 . Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work, and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938–1961 , Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Isaacman , Allen and Isaacman , Barbara . 1983 . Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900–1982 , Boulder, CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ivala , Adelino Zavala . 1993 . “ ‘Transformaç[otilde]es sócio‐políticas no Alto‐Lúrio; o caso do regulado de Umpuhua, c. 1985–1933: contribuição para a pesquisa da história local’ ” . Maputo : licenciatura em ensino de História e Geografía, Instituto Superior Pedagógico, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais, Departamento de História .
   Google Scholar
• Karibu , Nampula , Makhalelo , Nampula , Friedrich , Fundação and Ebert , Maputo . 31 Aug.‐2 Sept. 1994 1994 . Mesas Redondas sobre ‘Reconciliação e Resolução de Conflitos na Sociedade Tradicional Makhuwa’ , 31 Aug.‐2 Sept. 1994 , Ilha de Moçambique . (conference report).
   Google Scholar
• Kriger , Norma J. 1992 . Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War: Peasant Voices , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kruks , Sonia and Wisner , Ben . 1984 . ‘The State, the Party and the Female Peasantry in Mozambique’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 11 ( l ) : 106 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1993 . “ ‘Land Conflict on Maputo Periphery’ ” . In Mozambiquefile 199
   Google Scholar
• Lester , Brad . 1992 . ‘Grass‐roots Mozambique: A Cooperant Reports’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 8 ( 1 )
   Google Scholar
• Littlejohn, Gary, n.d., ‘Rural Development in Mueda District, Mozambique’, manuscript.
   Google Scholar
• Loxley , John . 1988 . ‘Strategic Defeat or Tactical Retreat?’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 4 ( 2 )
   Google Scholar
• McGregor , JoAnn . 1998 . ‘Violence and Social Change in a Border Economy: War in the Maputo Hinterland, 1984–1992’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 37 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machel , Samora . 1986 . ‘Mistakes and Deviations Persist. A Speech by President Samora Machel during the Debates on the Laws for the State Budget and Plan for 1986 in the December 1985 Session of the People's Assembly’ . Supplement to Mozambique News (AIM) , Jan.
   Google Scholar
• Mandala , Elias C. 1990 . Work and Control in a Peasant Economy: A History of the Lower Tchiri Valley in Malawi 1859–1960 , Madison, WI : University of Wisconsin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Manuel , Fernando . 1982 . ‘Algodão em Nampula: organizar o futuro aprendendo do presente’ . Tempo ,
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , Judith and Roesch , Otto . 1993 . ‘The “Green Zones” Agricultural Cooperatives of Nampula City: A New Phase in the Mozambican Cooperative Movement?’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 19 ( 2 ) : 240 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbwiliza , J.F. 1991 . A History of Commodity Production in Makuani 1600–1900: Mercantilist Accumulation to Imperialist Domination , Dar es Salaam : Dar es Salaam University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Medeiros , Eduardo . 1988 . As Etapas da Escravatura no Norte de Moçambique , Maputo : Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique . Estudos 4.
   Google Scholar
• Metselaar , L.C. 1994 . “ ‘Relatório da missão de levantamento de dados nos Distritos de Malema, Lalaua, Ribaué e Murrupula na Província de Nampula’ ” . Maputo : consultancy for the Dutch Embassy .
   Google Scholar
• Minter , William . 1989 . ‘Clarence‐Smith on Mozambique’ . Southern Africa Review of Books , June/July
   Google Scholar
• Minter , William . 1994 . Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Mozambique and Angola , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Minter , William . 1995 . untitled book review of Vines [1991] and Geffray [1991] . International Journal of African Historical Studies , 28 ( 3 ) : 613 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Motema , Tabo . 1986 . ‘Nampula em tempo de eleiç[otilde]es’ . Tempo ,
   Google Scholar
• Moyana , Salomão . 1986a . ‘Nampula: passar da candonga ao trabalho’ . Tempo ,
   Google Scholar
• Moyana , Salomão . 1986b . ‘Produzir algodão e castanha de caju não é favor, é ordem do Estado’ . Tempo ,
   Google Scholar
• Munslow , Barry . 1983 . Mozambique: The Revolution and its Origins , London : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• Mutaquiha, Januário, 1992, see section II.
   Google Scholar
• Myers , Greg W. and West , Harry G. 1993 . “ ‘Land Tenure Security and State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique: Case Studies in Nhamatanda, Manica, and Montepuez Districts’ ” . Madison, Wisconsin : Land Tenure Center . LTC research paper 110,
   Google Scholar
• Newitt , Malyn . 1981 . Portugal in Africa: The Last Hundred Years , London : C. Hurst .
   Google Scholar
• Newitt , Malyn . 1995 . A History of Mozambique , Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN : Indiana University Press .
   Google Scholar
• O'Laughlin , Bridget . 1981 . ‘A questão agrária em Moçambique’ . Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo) , : 9 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Laughlin , Bridget . 1992a . ‘Interpretations Matter: Evaluating the War in Mozambique’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 7 ( 3 )
   Google Scholar
• O'Laughlin , Bridget . 1992b . ‘A base social da guerra em Moçambique. Análise de “A causa das armas em Moçambique”, Antropologia de uma guerra civil, de C. Geffray, Paris: CREDU ‐ Karthala, 1990’ . Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo) , : 107 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Laughlin , Bridget . 1996 . ‘Through a Divided Glass: Dualism, Class and the Agrarian Question in Mozambique’ . The Journal of Peasant Studies , 23 ( 4 ) : 1 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Meara , Dan . 1991 . ‘The Collapse of Mozambican Socialism’ . Transformation , : 82 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Penvenne , Jeanne . 1985 . ‘A luta continua! Recent Literature on Mozambique’ . International Journal of African Historical Studies , 18 ( 1 ) : 109 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penvenne , Jeanne M. 1996 . ‘João dos Santos Albasini (1876–1922): The Contradictions of Politics and Identity in Colonial Mozambique’ . Journal of African History , 37 ( 3 ) : 419 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinsky , Barry . 1985 . “ ‘Territorial Dilemmas: Changing Urban Life’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1985].
   Google Scholar
• Pitcher , M. Anne . 1993 . Politics in the Portuguese Empire: The State, Industry and Cotton, 1926–1974 , Oxford : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pitcher , M. Anne . 1996 . ‘Recreating Colonialism or Reconstructing the State? Privatisation and Politics in Mozambique’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 22 ( 1 ) : 49 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitcher , M. Anne . 1998 . ‘Disruption without Transformation: Agrarian Relations and Livelihoods in Nampula Province, Mozambique 1975–1995’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 115 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raikes , Philip . 1984 . ‘Food Policy and Production in Mozambique since Independence’ . Review of African Political Economy , : 95 – 107 .
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1984 . “ ‘Peasants and Collective Agriculture’ ” . In The Politics of Agriculture in Tropical Africa , Edited by: Barker , Jonathan . London : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1988a . ‘Rural Mozambique since the Frelimo Party Fourth Congress: The Situation in the Baixo Limpopo” . Review of African Political Economy , : 73 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1988b . ‘Classes in Formation?’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 4 ( 2 )
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1989 . ‘Nampula: What's Left?’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 5 ( 2 )
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1989/1990 . ‘Is Renamo A Popular Movement?’ . Southern Africa Review of Books , Dec/Jan
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1992a . ‘Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 7 ( 5 )
   Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1992b . ‘Renamo and the Peasantry in Southern Mozambique: A View from Gaza Province’ . Canadian Journal of African Studies , 26 ( 3 ) : 462 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachs , Albie and Welch , Gita Honwana . 1990 . Liberating the Law: Creating Popular Justice in Mozambique , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Santos , Marcelino dos . 1973 . ‘FRELIMO Faces the Future’ (interview with Joe Slovo) . African Communist , : 23 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1985 . “ ‘The Content’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1985].
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1990a . Socialist Ideology and the Struggle for Southern Africa , Trenton, NJ : Africa World Press .
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1990b . “ ‘Development and Counter‐Development Strategies in Mozambique’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1990a].
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1990c . “ ‘The Role of Ideology in the Transition to Socialism’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1990a].
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1990d . ‘The Failure of Socialism?’ . Southern Africa Report (Toronto) , 6 ( 2 )
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1993 . “ ‘Rethinking the Frelimo State’ ” . In The Socialist Register , London : Merlin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. , ed. 1985 . A Difficult Road: The Transition to Socialism in Mozambique , New York : Monthly Review Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sheldon , Kathleen . 1994 . “ ‘Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World’ ” . In Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World , Edited by: Tétreault , Mary Ann . Columbia, SC : University of South Carolina Press .
   Google Scholar
• Soares , Paulo . 1993 . ‘Da “prova de trabalho” ao bilhete da identidade: a integração de Ocua na economía de mercado colonial (1942–1960)’ . Arquivo (Maputo) , : 155 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• 1979 . ‘Sobre a teoria dos blocos’ . Tempo ,
   Google Scholar
• 1993 . ‘Surplus Crops Unsold’ . Mozambiquefile ,
   Google Scholar
• Tanner , Christopher . 1993 . “ ‘Land Disputes and Ecological Degradation in an Irrigation Scheme: A Case Study of State Farm Divestiture in Chokwe, Mozambique’ ” . Madison, Wisconsin : Land Tenure Center . LTC research paper 111,
   Google Scholar
• United Nations . 1995 . The United Nations and Mozambique, 1992–1995 , New York : United Nations, Department of Public Information .
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Operation in Mozambique, Office for Humanitarian Assistance Coordination . 1994 . Consolidated Humanitarian Assistance Programme for 1994 , Maputo : United Nations Department for Humanitarian Affairs .
   Google Scholar
• Urdang , Stephanie . 1985 . “ ‘The Last Transition? Women and Development’ ” . Edited by: Saul . [1985].
   Google Scholar
• Urdang , Stephanie . 1989 . And Still They Dance: Women, War, and the Struggle for Change in Mozambique , New York : Monthly Review Press .
   Google Scholar
• Vail , Leroy and White , Landeg . 1980 . Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique: A Study of Quelimane District , London : Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Vieira Pinto , Manuel . 26 April 1984 . “ ‘A Conferência Episcopal ‐ CEM’ ” . 26 April , Nampula
   Google Scholar
• Vines , Alex . 1991 . Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique , London : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Wardman , Anna . 1985 . ‘The Co‐operative Movement in Chokwe, Mozambique’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 11 ( 2 ) : 295 – 304 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White , Landeg . 1985 . ‘Review Article: The Revolutions Ten Years On’ . The Journal of Southern African Studies , 11 ( 2 ) : 320 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , Ken . 1992 . “ ‘The Socio‐Economic Impact of War and Flight in Posto Deere, Morrumbala District, Zambezia’ ” . Oxford : Refugee Studies Programme . unpublished report,
   Google Scholar
• Wuyts , Marc . 1978 . “ ‘Peasants and Rural Economy in Mozambique’ ” . Maputo : Centro de Estudos Africanos, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane . discussion paper,
   Google Scholar
• Wuyts , Marc . 1980 . ‘The Political Economy of Portuguese Colonialism in Mozambique’ . Mozambican Studies (English edition of Estudos Moçambicanos, Maputo) , : 10 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Wuyts , Marc . 1985 . ‘Money, Planning and Rural Transformation in Mozambique’ . The Journal of Development Studies , 22 ( l ) : 180 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• II. Mozambican central government sources
   Google Scholar
• Baptista Lundin , Irae . 1992 . “ ‘Algumas consideraçães sobre a sociedade Amakhuwa’, Ministério da Administração Estatal, Projeto ‘Autoridade/poder tradicional’ ” . Maputo documento de pesquisa,
   Google Scholar
• Instituto do Algodão de Moçambique (IAM) . 1994 . “ ‘Mapa da evolução da produção no país’ ” .
   Google Scholar
• Ministério da Administração Estatal . 1992 . “ ‘Provincia de Nampula’ ” . Vol. 15/8 , Maputo
   Google Scholar
• Mutaquiha , Januário . 1992 . “ ‘Relatório do trabalho de campo realizado na Provincia de Nampula’ ” . Maputo : Direcção Nacional de Organização da Administração Estatal, Projecto de Investigação sobre a Autoridade/Poder Tradicional .
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Instituto de Algodão de Moçambique, Delegação do Norte . 2 Nov. 1975 . “ ‘Relatório suscinto do Instituto do Algodão de Moçambique, em Nampula, para a reunião Provincial, para estudo e resoluç[otilde]es a tomar, na produção individual e colectiva, a prazos imediato e curto’ ” . 2 Nov. , Nampula
   Google Scholar
• III. Provincial government sources, nampula
   Google Scholar
• Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento de Estatística . 1993 . “ ‘Produção comercializada de castanha de caju na Província de Nampula’ ” . Nampula, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo .
   Google Scholar
• Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento Provincial para Socialização do Campo, Nampula . 27 Nov. 1984 . “ ‘Dados estatísticos dos sectores: cooperativo, familiar, pequenos privados e aldeias comunais’ ” . 27 Nov. , Nampula
   Google Scholar
• Governo da Província de Nampula, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura . 1982 . “ ‘Relatório sobre o movimento cooperativo’, Nampula, 12 Feb. in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’ ” . Nampula : Direcção Provincial de Agricultura .
   Google Scholar
• Ministério de Agricultura, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura de Nampula, Departamento de Arvenses . 1 Jan. 1979 . “ ‘Assunto: Recuperação das areas assoladas pela Depressão ANGEL. Proposta para plano de actuação’ ” . 1 Jan. , Nampula and related documentation, pp.59–68 in José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, ‘Contributo para a recuperação de areas afectadas por deficiência alimentar’, in J.B. de Faria Lobo, Contributos, 1989, unpublished volume, private archive of José Bernardo de Faria Lobo.
   Google Scholar
• IV [Quarta] Sessão da Comissão para Socialização do Campo . 2 Oct. 1985 . “ ‘Documento final’ ” . 2 Oct. , Nampula in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Governo da Província de Nampula . 1988 . “ ‘Relatório do Governo Provincial por ocasião da visita de Sua Excelência, JOAQUIM ALBERTO CHISSANO, Presidente do Partido FRELIMO e Presidente da República Popular de Moçambique à Província de Nampula’ ” . Maputo : Nampula, Outubro in Land Tenure Center Library .
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Ministério da Agricultura, Província de Nampula, Direcção Provincial da Agricultura . 20 May 1986 . “ ‘Orientaç[otilde]es específicas da Provincial [sic] de Nampula para o sector agrário’ ” . 20 May , Nampula in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Província de Nampula, n.d. [1989], ‘Relatório da Comissão Executiva para a Socialização do Campo, V — Sessão Extraordinária’, in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Provincia de Nampula, Comissão Coordenadora Provincial para Socialização do Campo, IV Sessão Ordinária . 1985 . “ ‘Relatório’, Nampula, 28 Sept. in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’ ” . Nampula : Direcção Provincial de Agricultura .
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Província de Nampula, Direcção Distrital de Agricultura de Eráti . 1984 . “ ‘Relatório’, Eráti, 12 May in Dossier, ‘Namapa’ ” . Nampula : Direcção Provincial de Agricultura .
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Província de Nampula, Direcção Provincial da Agricultura, Departamento para a Socialização do Campo, 1984a [sic: given the title and the contents of the report, the year was probably 1985], ‘Relatório das actividades desenvolvidas durante o ano de 1984’, Nampula, 22 Feb. in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Provincia de Nampula, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento para a Socialização do Campo . 27 Nov. 1984b . “ ‘Sector cooperativo 83/84’, in Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento Provincial para Socialização do Campo, Nampula, ‘Dados estatísticos dos sectores: cooperativo, familiar, pequenos privados e aldeias comunais’ ” . 27 Nov. , Nampula 1984 in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Província de Nampula, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento para a Socialização do Campo, 1984c, no title, pp.2–3 in Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Departamento Provincial para Socialização do Campo, Nampula, ‘Dados estatísticos dos sectores: co‐operativo, familiar, pequenos privados e aldeias comunais’, Nampula, 27 Nov. 1984.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Província de Nampula, IV [Quarta] Sessão da Comissão Coordenadora para Socialização do Campo, 1985, untitled speech given at the session's close by an unidentified member of the commission, Nampula, 2 Oct. in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula.
   Google Scholar
• República Popular de Moçambique, Provincia de Nampula, V [Quinta] Sessão da Comissão Coordenadora Provincial para a Socialização do Campo . 1989 . “ ‘Síntese’, Nampula, 23 June in Dossier, ‘Socialização do Campo’ ” . Nampula : Direcção Provincial de Agricultura .
   Google Scholar
• IV. Colonial sources
   Google Scholar
• A. Published
   Google Scholar
• Almeida , Eugénio Ferreira de . 1957 . Governo do Distrito de Moçambique, Relatório, 1953–1956. Segundo Volume , Lisboa : Agência Geral do Ultramar .
   Google Scholar
• Faria Lobo , José Bernardo de . 1962 . Distrito de Moçambique: Circunscrição de Erati , Lisboa : Agência‐Geral do Ultramar, MCMLXII .
   Google Scholar
• B. Unpublished
   Google Scholar
• Branquinho , José Alberto Gomes de Melo . 1969 . “ ‘Prospecção das forças tradicionais. Distrito de Moçambique’ ” . Governo‐Geral de Moçambique, Serviços de Centralização e Coordenação de Informaçães, Lourenço Marques, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique . Secção Especial, 20.
   Google Scholar
• Cotta Mesquita, A., n.d. [1966], Relatório das Inspecç[otilde]es ao Concelho e Comissão Municipal do Eráti, Feitas em 1965, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Inspecção dos Serviços Administrativos e Negócios Indígenas, Inventário dos Relatórios das Inspecçóes Administração Civil, Fundo de Administração Civil de Lourenço Marques, 27.
   Google Scholar
• Figueiredo, João de, 1938, Relatório ‐ 1938. II Parte, Governo da Província do Niassa, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Fundo do Governo Geral, Caixa 86.
   Google Scholar
• Gouveia , Mapril . 1968 . “ ‘O algodão na economia do Distrito de Moçambique’ ” . Centro de Documentação Económica, CTPIE, CEA Documentation Center .
   Google Scholar
• V. Personal correspondence
   Google Scholar
• From José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, Galizes, Portugal, 15 May 1997.
   Google Scholar
• From José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, Galizes, Portugal, 14 Dec. 1995.
   Google Scholar
• From José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, Galizes, Portugal, 15 Aug. 1995.
   Google Scholar
• VI. Interviews
   Google Scholar
• ‘Zagaia’ ('Azagaia') refers to Renamo's name for the site of its headquarters in the zone that was still under its control in Namapa District in 1994. In official parlance, the area is known as Metage.
   Google Scholar
• Chief and male smallholders, settlement, Odinepa Locality, Namapa District, 2/6/94. Twelve cotton growers, including a chief.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Mepera, two substitute chiefs, two cabos three mahumu and Frelimo party secretary, Odinepa Centre, Odinepa Locality, Namapa District, 4/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Elderly men and Frelimo party secretary, Odinepa Centre, Odinepa Locality, Namapa District, 6/6/94. Six men present.
   Google Scholar
• Missionary, Alua Centre, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 7/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Muhula, Namirôa Centre, Namirôa Administrative Post, Namapa District, 11/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Frelimo party secretaries, Namirôa Centre, Namirôa Administrative Post, Namapa District, 11/6/94. Thirteen men present, including the First Party Secretary of Namirôa, a nephew of Chief Muhula, a first cousin of Cabo Mwehiyo, a brother of Chief Mucarara and a first cousin of Chief Uantera.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Mucarara, his substitute, Frelimo party secretary, six mahumu and one shéhé Nahachari, Muanona Locality, Namapa District, 12/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Tubruto, Namirôa Centre, Namirôa Administrative Post, Namapa District, 13/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chiefs Alua, Cómala, Saíde and Nametemula, Alua Centre, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District,14/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• UNAMO representatives and members, Alua Centre, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 15/6/94. Nine people present, including two women, two elderly men, the First Party Secretary of the District and the Secretary for Mobilization and Propaganda.
   Google Scholar
• Animadores Alua Centre, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 16/6/94. Twenty‐one men present from Renamo‐ and government‐held zones in Alua Administrative Post.
   Google Scholar
• Former EEAN and SODAN capataz Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 17/6/94.
   Google Scholar
• Ernesto Mabonhane, former administrator of Ribáuè District, Nampula City, 2/8/94.
   Google Scholar
• President of the Locality, Chief Intalia, Chief Uantera, Uantera's deputy, Cabo Mejua, cabo of Muanona, one capitão two deputies of capitães a member of the local secretariat, the Secretary of the Muanona Circle, the Secretary of Napala Circle, and four other party secretaries, Muanona Centre, Muanona Locality, Namapa District, 22/8/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Intalia, Napala, Muanona Locality, Namapa District, 25/8/94.
   Google Scholar
• Former administrator of Namapa, Ilha de Moçambique, 31/8/94.
   Google Scholar
• Administrator of Nacarôa District, Nampula City, 10/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• Eduardo Nihia, Frelimo First Party Secretary of Nampula Province, Nampula City, 13/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Meliva, Chief Mepacala, nine mahumu two cabos and an elderly man, ‘Zagaia’, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 23/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• Elderly men and traditional authorities, ‘Zagaia’, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 24/9/94. Six men present, including Chief Meliva, two mahumu one cabo one elder and a primary school teacher visiting from Alua.
   Google Scholar
• Former Frelimo party secretary ('Galisto'), ‘Zagaia’, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 25/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• Community court judges, Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 27/9/94. Ten men present: eight judges (two of whom were also mahumu) the District Court Magistrate and the Registrar.
   Google Scholar
• Frelimo First Party Secretary of Namapa District, Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 27/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• José de Almeida (former Frelimo First Party Secretary of Muanona Circle and President of the Locality; also the nephew of ‘the real’ [o próprió] Chief Uantera), Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 28/9/94.
   Google Scholar
• Former residents of Samora Machel Communal Village, Samora Machel Centre, Samora Machel Locality, Namapa District, 30/9/94. Twenty‐eight people present (24 men and four women), including five Frelimo party secretaries, four zone committee members, one OMM secretary, one OMM member, three mahumu (one of whom doubled as a cabo) one shéhé one capitão. seven Frelimo party members, the coordinator for the local school and the substitute for the President of the Locality.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Cirnala, Napai, Samora Machel Locality, Namapa District, 1/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Taibo (former colonial régulo and capataz) Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 2/10/94. At the time of field research, the district administration had enlisted Taibo's cousin to serve as ’régulo’ of Taibo's colonial regedoria and, thus, the two Taibos were at loggerheads.
   Google Scholar
• Frelimo First Party Secretary of Namapa District, Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 4/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Former administrator of Eráti/Namapa District ('Bahia’, 1984–87), Nampula City, 9/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Cabo Cumar, Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 15/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Chief Khanatepa Ali, Alua Centre, Alua Administrative Post, Namapa District, 17/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Frelimo First Party Secretary of Namapa District, Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 18/10/94.
   Google Scholar
• Bernardo Mussa (former Frelimo party secretary, former cabo and nephew of the late Chief Nametaramo), Namapa Centre, Namapa District, 17/11/94.
   Google Scholar
• José Bernardo de Faria Lobo, Galizes, Portugal, 9/7/95.
   Google Scholar