High prevalence of Brachyspira spp. in layers kept in alternative husbandry systems associated with frequent species variations from end of rearing to slaughter

References

• Adachi, Y., Sueyoshi, M., Miyagawa, E., Minato, H. & Shoya, S. (1985). Experimental infection of young broiler chicks with Treponema hyodysteneriae. Microbiology and Immunology, 29, 683–688. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1985.tb00872.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amin, M.M., Philipps, N.D., La, T., Robertson, I.D. & Hampson, D.J. (2014). Intestinal spirochaetes (Brachyspira spp.) colonizing flocks of layer and breeder chickens in Malaysia. Avian Pathology 43, 501–505. doi: 10.1080/03079457.2014.966056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bano, L., Merialdi, G., Bonilauri, P., Dall’Anese, G., Capello, K., Comin, D., Cattoli, G., Sanguinetti, V., Hampson, D.J. & Agnoletti, F. (2008). Prevalence, disease associations and risk factors for colonization with intestinal spirochaetes (Brachyspira spp.) in flocks of laying hens in north-eastern Italy. Avian Pathology, 37, 281–286. doi: 10.1080/03079450802043726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burch, D.G.S., Harding, C., Alvarez, R. & Valks, M. (2006). Treatment of a field case of avian intestinal spirochaetosis caused by Brachyspira pilosicoli with tiamulin. Avian Pathology, 35, 211–216. doi: 10.1080/03079450600711011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davelaar, F.G., Smit, H.F., Hovind-Hougen, K., Dwars, R.M. & Vandervalk, P.C. (1986). Infectious typhlitis in chickens caused by spirochetes. Avian Pathology, 15, 247–258. doi: 10.1080/03079458608436285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feberwee, A., Hampson, D.J., Phillips, N.D., La, T., van der Heijden, H.M.J.F., Wellenberg, G.J., Dwars, R.M. & Landman, W.J.M. (2008). Identification of Brachyspira hyodysenteriae and other pathogenic Brachyspira species in chickens from laying flocks with diarrhea or reduced production or both. Journal of Clincal Microbiology, 46, 593–600. doi: 10.1128/JCM.01829-07
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffiths, I.B., Hunt, B.W., Lister, S.A. & Lamont, M.H. (1987). Retarded growth rate and delayed onset of egg production associated with spirochaete infection in pullets. Veterinary Record, 121, 35–37. doi: 10.1136/vr.121.2.35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hampson, D.J. (2013). Avian Intestinal Spirochetosis. In D.E. Swayne, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald, L.K. Nolan, D.L. Suarez, & V. Nair, (Eds.). Diseases of Poultry, 13th ed (pp. 995–1007). Ames: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Hampson, D.J. & McLaren, A.J. (1999). Experimental infection of laying hens with Serpulina intermedia causes reduced egg production and increased faecal water content. Avian Pathology, 28, 113–117. doi: 10.1080/03079459994821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hothorn, T., Bretz, F. & Westfall, P. (2008). Simultaneous inference in general parametric models. Biometrical Journal, 50, 346–363. doi: 10.1002/bimj.200810425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamshidi, A. & Hampson, D.J. (2003). Experimental infection of layer hens with a human isolate of Brachyspira pilosicoli. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 52, 361–364. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.05040-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansson, D.S., Fellström, C., Rasbäck, T., Vagsholm, I., Gunnarsson, A., Ingermaa, F. & Johansson, K.E. (2008). Phenotypic and molecular characterization of Brachyspira spp. isolated from laying hens in different housing systems. Veterinary Microbiology, 130, 348–362. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.02.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosmidis, I. (2013). brglm: Bias reduction in binomial-response generalized linear models. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ucakiko/software.html
   Google Scholar
• Mappely, L.J., La Ragione, R.M. & Woodward, M.J. (2014). Brachyspira and its role in avian intestinal spirochetosis. Veterinary Microbiology, 168, 245–260. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.11.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mappley, L.J., Tchorzewska, M.A., Nunez, A., Woodward, M.J. & La Ragione, R.M. (2013). Evidence for systemic spread of the potentially zoonotic intestinal spirochaete Brachyspira pilosicoli in experimentally challenged laying chicken. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 62, 297–302. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.052126-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathey jr., W.J. & Zander, D.V. (1955). Spirochetes and cecal nodules in poultry. Journal of American Vetererinary Medical Association, 126, 475–477.
   Google Scholar
• McLaren, A.J., Hampson, D.J. & Wylie, S.L. (1996). The prevalence of intestinal spirochaetes in poultry flocks in Western Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal, 74, 319–321. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb13792.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirajkar, N.S., Phillips, N.D., La, T., Hampson, D.J. & Gebhart, C.J. (2016). Characterization and recognition of Brachyspira hampsonii sp. nov., a novel intestinal spirochete that is pathogenic to pigs. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 54, 2942–2949. doi: 10.1128/JCM.01717-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mushtaq, M., Zubair, S., Rasbaeck, T., Bongcam-Rudloff, E. & Jansson, D.S. (2015). Brachyspira suanatina sp. nov., an enteropathogenic intestinal spirochaete isolated from pigs and mallards: genomic and phenotypic characteristics. BMC Microbiology, 15, 208. doi: 10.1186/s12866-015-0537-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemes, C.S., Galvits, R., Dobos-Kovacs, M., Ivanics, E. Kaszanyitzky, E., Beregszaszi A., Szeredi, L. & Dencso, L. (2006). Typhlocolitis associated with spirochaetes in goose flocks. Avian Pathology, 35, 4–11. doi: 10.1080/03079450500465577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxberry, S.L., Trott, D.J. & Hampson, D.J. (1998). Serpulina pilosicoli, waterbirds and water: potential sources of infection for humans and other animals. Epidemiology and Infection, 121, 219–225. doi: 10.1017/S0950268898008863
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, N.D., La, T. & Hampson, D.J. (2005). A cross-sectional study to investigate the occurrence and distribution of intestinal spirochaetes (Brachyspira spp.) in three flocks of laying hens. Veterinary Microbiology, 105, 189–198. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.10.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, N.D., La, T., Pluske, J.R. & Hampson, D.J. (2004). The wheat variety used in the diet of laying hens influences colonization with the intestinal spirochaete Brachyspira intermedia. Avian Pathology, 33, 586–590. doi: 10.1080/03079450400013246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team (2015). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for statistical computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/
   Google Scholar
• Rubin, J.E., Harms, N.J., Fernando, C., Soos, C., Detmer, S.E., Harding, J.C.S. & Hill, J.E. (2013). Isolation and Characterization of Brachyspira spp. including “Brachyspira hampsonii” from lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) in the Canadian Arctic. Microbial Ecolology, 66, 813–822. doi: 10.1007/s00248-013-0273-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagartz, J.E., Swayne, D.E., Eaton, K.A., Hayes, J.R., Amass, K.D., Wack, R. & Kramer, L. (1992). Necrotizing typhlocolitis associated with a spirochete in rheas (Rhea americana). Avian Diseases, 36, 282–289. doi: 10.2307/1591502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, Y. & Hampson, D.J. (2009). Development of a multiplex qPCR for detection and quantification of pathogenic intestinal spirochaetes in the faeces of pigs and chickens. Veterinary Microbiology, 137, 129–136. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.12.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, C.P. & Hampson, D.J. (1999). Prevalence and disease association of intestinal spirochaetes in chickens in eastern Australia. Avian Pathology, 28, 447–454. doi: 10.1080/03079459994461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, C.P. & Hampson, D.J. (2002). Experimental infection of broiler breeder hens with the intestinal spirochaete Brachyspira (Serpulina) pilosicoli causes reduced egg production. Avian Pathology, 31, 169–175. doi: 10.1080/03079450120118667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, C.P., Oxberry, S.L., Philips, N.D., La, T. & Hampson, D.J. (2005). The use of multilocus enzyme electrophoresis to characterise intestinal spirochaetes (Brachyspira spp.) colonising hens in commercial flocks. Veterinary Microbiology, 107, 149–157. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.01.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swayne, D.E., Eaton, K.A., Stoutenburg, J., Trott, D.J., Hampson, D.J. & Jensen, N.S. (1995). Identification of a new intestinal spirochete with pathogenicity for chickens. Infection and Immunity, 63, 430–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thuma, A., Dan, A., Kaszanyitzky, E., Fazekas, B., Toth, A. & Glavits, R. (2011). Experimental inoculation of day-old ducks with Brachyspira pilosicoli and B. alvinipulli. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 59, 165–174. doi: 10.1556/AVet.2011.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trott, D.J., McLaren, A.J. & Hampson, D.J. (1995). Pathogenicity of human and porcine intestinal spirochetes in one-day-old specific-pathogen-free chicks: an animal model of intestinal spirochetosis. Infection and Immunity, 63, 3705–3710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar