- 1813 . Pastels were celebrated in poetry by the artist C.H. Watelet (1718–1786), and by the German poets F.G. Klopstock (1724–1803), and CM. Wieland (1733- Pierre-Jean Mariette wrote a sonnet in praise of the pastellist Rosalba Camera, while the lesser-known French author Pesselier wrote an elaborate eulogy to Maurice Quentin de la Tour. In prose, too, one encounters poetic descriptions of pastels, such as that by Anton Raphael Mengs, who once compared pastels to ‘butterflies in the flower-garden of art’
- Bell , N. , ed. 1996 . Historic Framing and Presentation of Watercolours, Drawings and Prints—Proceedings of the 1996 Conference 12 – 18 . Pastels in rococo salons can be appreciated today by the visitor to the Ca' Rezzonico in Venice, or the Musée Carnavalet in Paris, while Dresden's Zwinger still houses the remnants of what was perhaps the most impressive example of a gallery of pastels, the Rosalba Room. This contains over 100 paintings by Camera, which had been collected by Frederick-Augustus II, Elector of Saxony (from 1733 Augustus III, King of Poland), cf: T. Burns, ‘The historic framing and presentation of European pastel portraits in the early Eighteenth Century’, (Leigh: Institute of Paper Conservation
- 1983 . Historia Koloru w Dziejach Malarstwa Europejskiego An excellent presentation of colour in eighteenth-century painting is to be found in M. Rzepińska, [The History of Colour in European Painting] (Cracow: Wydawnictwo Literackie
- Hauser , A. 1962 . “ ‘Rococo, Classicism and Romanticism’ ” . In The Social History of Art 3 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 12
- Singer , C. , ed. 1957 . A History of Technology Vol. 3 , 238 – 240 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . 4 vols. (: vol.; Burns,15–16
- 1981 . French Eighteenth-Century Painters For de la Tour, see, for example, E. and J. de Goncourt, 2nd edn (Oxford: Phaidon, 162
- 1749 . ‘Lettre sur la peinture, la sculpture et I'architecture’ see de Goncourt, 163–4: footnote 13
- Sensier , A. Journal de Rosalba Carriera pendant son séjour à Paris en 1720 et , 1721 Rosalba Camera stayed in Paris during 1720–1, at the invitation of the financier and collector Pierre Crozat, who introduced her to the top artistic circles. Parisian magazines were quick to exploit the woman artist. A commission by Louis XIV for both a miniature and a pastel led to a personal royal visit to her studio, which guaranteed the whole of society's competing for her portraits, and even the Académie, breaking its embargo against the admission of women, appointed her an agrégée. (Paris: J. Techener, 1865);V. Malamani, Rosalba Carriera (Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche, 1910); K. Chledowski, Rokoko we Wroszech [Rococo in Italy] (Warsaw: G. Gebethner, 1915); V. and L. Adair, 18th Century Pastel Portraits (London: John Gifford, 1971 13–20
- Hardie , M. , ed. 1919 . Miniatura or the Art of Limning Pastels merely broadened the range of available colour drawing media, ie watercolour, gouache, oil, tempera and natural coloured chalks. Their advantage was perhaps their portability: ‘this kind of Painting is soe gentle & easy, the colours soe ready and portable, noe use of pencils [ie brushes]…noe trouble with water or oyle that many gentle & noble persons abroad make it their practice and pastimé, E. Norgate, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 75
- Meder , J. Die Handzeichnung: Ihre Technik und Entwicklung Vienna : Anton Schroll . The collections in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum contain many examples. It can be observed in the series of finely drawn coloured chalk portraits of French nobility by François Clouet (1485–1541), on cream paper, or the heads drawn by Federico Barocci (1528–1612) in a broader manner on grey-blue paper. Powdered chalks or powder pigments must have been rubbed in the support. Gregorius (1600) writes about white chalk ground rubbed into paper ((, 1919–23),trans, and rev. by W. Ames: The Mastery of Drawings, 2 vols. (New York: Abaris, 1978) 100. Additionally, using powder pigments applied with a stump was a standard method in pastel painting, particularly for expensive colours. J.B. Corneille (in collaboration with R. de Piles), Premiers éléments de peinture pratique (Paris: N. Langlois, 1684), 95. This would be done with the tip of the stump which had been moistened with the breath: R. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, 2 vols. (London: J. Nourse, 1758 vol. 1, 194–5, 200–201
- Monnier , G. 1984 . Pastels from the 16th to the 20th century Geneva : Skira . See, for example: Meder, 99–113, and
- Corneille, 91
- 1872 . Inv. No: BM P&D 1012.3273
- 1859 . Inv. No: BM P&D 0514.278
- Armenini , G. B. 1587 . De Veri Precetti delta Pittura Ravenna : F. Tebaldini .
- Imperato , F. 1599 . Dell'Historia Naturale Naples : Nella Stampari à Porta Reale . XXVIII
- Norgate.
- Turquet de Mayerne , T. Pictoria Sculptoria & quae subalternarum artium Sloane 2052. MS, British Library . German trans, by E Berger: Beitrage zur Entwickelungs-Geschichte der Maltechnik (Munich: Georg D. W. Callway, 1901
- Gautier de Nismes , H. 1687 . L'Art de laver, ou nouvelle manière de peindre sur le papier Paris : J. Collombat .
- 1944 . La Chemie des Peintures This has been clarified by Bontinck: E. Bontinck, ‘La fabrication des pastels’, VII 243–256. This is an excellent and well documented survey of the production of pastels, and has been most useful in the preparation of the present article
- We find in Dossie the comment that mixing pigments with gypsum required less skill: Dossie, 186
- Boutet , C. 1708 . Traité de la Peinture en Mignature The Hague : Louis & Henry van Dole .
- Russell , J. 1772 . Elements of Painting with Crayons 35 London : J. Wilkie and J. Walter .
- Russell . 1982 . “ 35.25 For the history and chemical composition of the white pigments see: R. Harley ” . In Artists' Pigments c.1600–1835 London : Butterworth .
- Dossie . 187
- 1757 . Dictionnaire portatif de peinture Paris : Bauche . Sensier, 425; A-J. Pernety,(444, see: Bontinck, 5
- Traité de la Peinture au Pastel Paris : Defer de Maisonneuve . (, 1788). Henceforth: Traité 1788. For the possible authorship of this work see: Burns, 15, footnote 44
- 1788 . Traité 60 – 75 . See
- Dossie, 190
- passim. Russell
- See, for example: Dossie, 183: ‘having general directions for the manner, [one] must proportion and adjust the quantity of the ingredients to each other, by actual trials of the effect; which may nevertheless be done with very little trouble…since the crayons can always be wrought over again’
- Both the equipment listed here and the methods of levigating and grinding pigments first with a solvent of the intended medium and then with the medium itself were not unique to pastel making, but a conventional way of producing paints including oils
- Russell, 45
- These again seem to be standard ways of ‘blotting off’ excess solvent. Chalk and paper are mentioned, for example, by de Mayerne, in conjunction with making oils
- de Massoul , M. C. 1797 . A Treatise on the Art of Painting, and the Composition of Colours 109 – 10 . anon. Eng. trans. (London: T Baylis
- The use of copper plate (prepared as for a mezzotint) as a support was infrequent, but is known from surviving examples, such as the portrait of Judge Jeffreys by Edward Lutterell (1680–1724 in the British Museum (BM P&D 1993, 1211.4)
- Norgate, 76
- Corneille, 92; see also: Bontinck, 1, where the early retailing of pastels is well surveyed
- Boutet, 151
- See Sensier, 396; Malamani, 106; and Adair
- Cole had apparently supervised the quality of these pastels' production himself.
- Müntz , J. H. 1760 . Encaustic: or Count Caylus Method of Painting in the Manner of the Ancients. To which is added a sure and easy Method of Fixing of Crayons London
- Watrous , J. 1957 . The Craft of Old Master Drawings 112 Madison, WI : University of Wisconsin Press . and 161: footnote 31, quoting from Müntz. Surviving colour-merchants' trade cards are testimony to this trade in London, eg De la Cour (1743), Pache & Galliard (1784), G. and I. Newman (1786), and the Sandys-Middleton partnership (1780–90). See: J. Ayres, The Artist's Craft (Oxford: Phaidon, 1985 102–103
- 1788 . Traité 204
- de Massoul, 111
- ‘En tout cas, Us trouveront à Paris, chez les marchands de couleurs, & dans les Provinces, chez les marchands d'estampes, des crayons tout préparés’ (Traité 204 See also: Harley, 17, 23, for the early retailing of artists' materials
- Russell, 41
- Simon , J . 1998 . The production, framing and care of English pastel portraits in the Eighteenth Century . The Paper Conservator , 22 : 14 footnote 31
- 1684 . Although de Piles in effectively states that pastel painting is inferior to oils, during the 1720s this situation obviously changed, when it became favoured by Royalty and pursued by the rest of society. In the 1750s pastels (that is, those in such hands as de la Tour's) were still surrounded by an air of ‘jealous hostility’, when the salons complained that ‘pastel is the favoured medium for portraits’ (de Goncourt, 164: footnote 15)
- Rzepinska, 379
- The Silver Ceruse first, ye Nymphs prepare, In Native Whiteners exquisitely fair, Round this let Nitre clasp its Purple Arms, And do itself to give the Ceruse charms, Till both in soft Embraces sweetly lost One common undistinguish'd Colour boost. The Rainbow-Flow'r with various Dies succeeds, The beauteous Product of Illyria's Meads! Blend all th'Ingredients on the Marble Stone, And crush the diff'ring Colours into one, Add balmy Honey and the Work's compleat, The Nymph shall smile, and bless the pleasing Cheat
- Bettenham , J. The Art of Beauty: A Poem (1715),quoted in R. Corson, Fashions in Makeup. From Ancient to Modern Times (London: Peter Owen, 1972 195
- 1908 . La Civilité, l'étiquette, la môde, le ton ton du XII' au XIX' siècle Vol. 2 , 50 Paris : Emil Paul . ‘Under Louis XV and XVI everybody, men, women and children, wore powder [in their hair], even military standards imposed it’, A. Franklin,(vol. As for painting faces, this too was a part of etiquette, and nobody dared go into society without a ‘thick’ coating of white and rouge on the cheeks. Even royalty like Marie-Thérèse of Spain, first wife of the Dauphin Louis, was coerced into following the French fashion in this respect on her arrival in Paris in 1745 (cf., generally: Franklin, 48–63, Corson, 172–284)
- Ross , John , ed. 1996 . A History of Costume in the West For a discussion of the effect on paintings, see: Rzepińska, 371 and for textiles, see: F. Boucher, Eng. trans, (London: Thames and Hudson, 263
- 371 – 397 . Rzepińska
- de Lairesse , G. 1738 . The Art of Painting in all its Branches London : printed for the author .
- Rzepińska . 1840 . “ 319, quoting a work by Rubens' pupil J. B. Descamps: ” . In les vies des peintres flamands et hollandais (Paris, 1753, reprinted Marseille, 310
- Goodman , J. 1995 . Diderot on Art Vol. 1 , 199 New Haven and London : Yale University Press . 57de Lairesse, 25. See, for example: Diderot's description of a woman dressed in white satin in his essay on colour, (: vol
- Corson, 228
- Rzepińska, 371
- Hogarth , W . 1955 . The Analysis of Beauty Edited by: Burke , J. London : J. Reeves for the Author . (, 1753), reprint (Oxford: The Clarendon Press
- Bardon , A. 1767 . Traité de la Peinture Paris
- 1995 . Colour and Culture: Practice and Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction 178 – 185 . London : Thames and Hudson . For the increased use of pre-mixed tints on the oil palette since the latter half of the Seventeenth Century see: J. Gage
- Bardwell , T. 1782 . The Practice of Painting and Perspective made Easy 11 London : S. Richardson . First published in 1756
- Cf. Rzepińska, 384
- 1673 . Dialogue sur le coloris Paris de Piles presented his arguments in (In 1699 he was appointed Conseillier Honoraire to the Académie Royale, which marked the victory of the colourists' party. Rzepińska, 319
- Newton , I. 1704 . Opticks (London: Sam. Smith and Benj. Walford
- Boucher . 1980 . “ 293. See also: K.G. Ponting ” . In A Dictionary of Dyes and Dyeing London, Sydney, Toronto : Mills and Boon . In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries France established its European hegemony over the dyeing and textile industries. Through state interest and support these industries flourished, benefiting from the work of many outstanding chemists and engineers
- Goodman, 199
- 1788 . Traité 82
- Bardwell, 17
- 10 – 11 . ie a hog bristle brush. Bardwell
- Boyle , R. 1670 . Experiments and Considerations Touching Colours 33 – 35 . London : Henry Herringman . First published 1664
- 120 – 6 . de Massoul
- 1788 . Traité 10 translation after Monnier, 111
- de Goncourt, 166
- 1747 . As argued by, for example, the Abbé Le Blanc in ‘oil darkens with time and dims the brightness of the finest colours’, after Monnier, 118
- Even before the Revolution philanthropists had deplored the consumption of starch for make-up powder, which otherwise employed ‘could feed 10,000 needy': Franklin, 63
- 1850 . In a Mrs Loudon recommended the ‘art of pastel to female artists and amateurs': Ayres, 103
- Howard , J. 1986 . “ ‘Introduction’, in ” . In The Art of the Pastel: An Exhibition of English and Continental Pastels 8 London : The Clarendon Gallery . Haydon's distaste will be understood from his remarks that ‘warmth is more agreeable than coldness’ and ‘the face of the greatest beauty…is anything but smooth’, B. R. Haydon, Lectures on Painting and Design (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longman, 1844) 261, 272. In England the real decline of pastels followed the death of the renowned exponent John Russell in 1806, who, since 1785, had been Crayon Painter to the Prince of Wales
- 8 – 9 . Following Howard
- Monnier, 117
- Personal communication with curators of various prints and drawings collections, and staff at Christie's, London
The Paper Conservator
Volume 22, 1998 - Issue 1