Effects of Education on Executive Functioning and its Trainability

REFERENCES

• Albert , M. S. , Jones , K. , Savage , C. R. , Berkman , L. , Seeman , T. , Blazer , D. , & Rowe , J. W. ( 1995 ). Predictors of cognitive change in older persons: MacArthur studies of successful aging . Psychology & Aging , 10 ( 4 ), 578 – 589 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anstey , K. , & Christensen , H. ( 2000 ). Education, activity, health, blood pressure and apolipoprotein E as predictors of cognitive change in old age: A review . Gerontology , 46 ( 3 ), 163 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basak , C. , & Verhaeghen , P. ( 2011 ). Three layers of working memory: Focus-switch costs and retrieval dynamics as revealed by the N-count task . Journal of Cognitive Psychology , 23 ( 2 ), 204 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bherer , L. , Kramer , A. F. , Peterson , M. S. , Colcombe , S. , Erickson , K. , & Becic , E. ( 2006 ). Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: Application to attentional control . Acta Psychologica , 123 , 261 – 278 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosma , H. , van Boxtel , M. P. J. , Ponds , R. W. H. M. , Houx , P. J. H. , & Jolles , J. ( 2003 ). Education and age-related cognitive decline: The contribution of mental workload . Educational Gerontology , 29 ( 2 ), 165 – 173 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler , S. M. , Ashford , J. W. , & Snowdon , D. A. ( 1996 ). Age, education, and changes in the Mini-Mental State Exam scores of older women: Findings from the nun study . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 44 ( 6 ), 675 – 681 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carmelli , D. , Swan , G. E. , LaRue , A. , & Eslinger , P. J. ( 1997 ). Correlates of change in cognitive function in survivors from the Western Collaborative Group Study . Neuroepidemiology , 16 ( 6 ), 285 – 295 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , H. ( 2001 ). What cognitive changes can be expected with normal ageing? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 35 ( 6 ), 768 – 775 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colsher , P. L. , & Wallace , R. B. ( 1991 ). Longitudinal application of cognitive function measures in a defined population of community-dwelling elders . Annals of epidemiology , 1 , 215 – 230 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cowan , N. ( 1997 ). Attention and memory: An integrated framework . New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cowan , N. ( 2005 ). Working memory capacity . New York , NY : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Dahlin , E. , Nyberg , L. , Bäckman , L. , & Stigsdotter-Neely , A. ( 2008 ). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: Immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance . Psychology & Aging , 23 ( 4 ), 720 – 730 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary , I. J. , Der , G. , & Ford , G. ( 2001 ). Reaction times and intelligence differences: A population-based cohort study . Intelligence , 29 ( 5 ), 389 – 399 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorbath , L. , & Titz , C. ( 2011 ). Dissociable age effects in focus-switching: Out of sight, out of mind . Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry , 24 ( 2 ), 103 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Dorbath , L. , Hasselhorn , M. , & Titz , C. ( 2011 ). Aging and executive functioning: A training study on focus-switching . Frontiers in Psychology , 2 , 257 . doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman , N. P. , Miyake , A. , Young , S. E. , DeFries , J. C. , Corley , R. P. , & Hewitt , J. K. ( 2008 ). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 137 ( 2 ), 201 – 225 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garavan , H. ( 1998 ). Serial attention within working memory . Memory & Cognition , 26 ( 2 ), 263 – 276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanna-Pladdy , B. , & MacKay , A. ( 2011 ). The relation between instrumental musical activity and cognitive aging . Neuropsychology , 25 ( 3 ), 378 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hultsch , D. F. , Hertzog , C. , Dixon , R. A. , & Small , B. J. ( 1998 ). Memory change in the aged . New York , NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Karbach , J. , & Kray , J. ( 2009 ). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training . Developmental Science , 12 ( 6 ), 978 – 990 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer , A. F. , & Willis , S. L. ( 2002 ). Enhancing the cognitive vitality of older adults . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 11 ( 5 ), 173 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kray , J. , & Lindenberger , U. ( 2000 ). Adult age differences in task switching . Psychology & Aging , 15 ( 1 ), 126 – 147 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McElree , B. ( 2001 ). Working memory and focal attention . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition , 27 ( 3 ), 817 – 835 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moering , R. G. , Schinka , J. A. , Mortimer , J. A. , & Graves , A. B. ( 2004 ). Normative data for elderly African Americans for the Stroop Color and Word Test . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 19 ( 1 ), 61 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noack , H. , Lövdén , M. , Schmiedek , F. , & Lindenberger , U. ( 2009 ). Cognitive plasticity in adulthood and old age: Gauging the generality of cognitive intervention effects . Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience , 27 ( 5 ), 435 – 453 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papp , K. V. , Walsh , S. J. , & Snyder , P. J. ( 2009 ). Immediate and delayed effects of cognitive interventions in healthy elderly: A review of current literature and future directions . Alzheimer's & Dementia , 5 ( 1 ), 50 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimers , S. , & Maylor , E. A. ( 2005 ). Task switching across the life span: Effects of age on general and specific switch costs . Developmental Psychology , 41 ( 4 ), 661 – 671 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarmeas , N. , Zarahn , E. , Anderson , K. E. , Hilton , J. , Flynn , J. , van Heertum , R. , … Stern , Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve modulates functional brain responses during memory tasks: A PET study in healthy young and elderly subjects. NeuroImage , 19, 1215–1227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , K.-H. , & Metzler , P. ( 1992 ). Wortschatztest (WST) [Vocabulary test] . Weinheim , Germany : Beltz Test .
   Google Scholar
• Staff , R. T. , Murray , A. D. , Deary , I. J. , & Whalley , L. J. ( 2004 ). What provides cerebral reserve? Brain: A Journal of Neurology , 127 ( 5 ), 1191 – 1199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. ( 2002 ). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 ( 3 ), 448 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , Y. , Habeck , C. , Moeller , J. , Scarmeas , N. , Anderson , K. E. , & Hilton , H. J. , … van Heertum , R. ( 2005 ). Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults . Cerebral Cortex , 15 ( 4 ), 394 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker-Drob , E. M. , Johnson , K. E. , & Jones , R. N. ( 2009 ). The cognitive reserve hypothesis: A longitudinal examination of age-associated declines in reasoning and processing speed . Developmental Psychology , 45 ( 2 ), 431 – 446 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tun , P. A. , & Lachman , M. E. ( 2008 ). Age differences in reaction time and attention in a national telephone sample of adults: Education, sex, and task complexity matter . Developmental Psychology , 44 ( 5 ), 1421 – 1429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth , N. , & Engle , R. W. ( 2008 ). Speed and accuracy of accessing information in working memory: An individual differences investigation of focus switching . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition , 34 ( 3 ), 616 – 630 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Boxtel , M. P. J. , ten Tusscher , M. P. M. , Metsemakers , J. F. M. , Willems , B. , & Jolles , J. ( 2001 ). Visual determinants of reduced performance on the Stroop Color-Word Test in normal aging individuals . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 23 ( 5 ), 620 – 627 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Elst , W. , van Boxtel , M. P. J. , van Breukelen , G. J. , & Jolles , J. ( 2006 ). The Stroop Color-Word Test: Influence of age, sex, and education; and normative data for a large sample across the adult age range . Assessment , 13 ( 1 ), 62 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dijk , K. R. A. , van Gerven , P. W. M. , van Boxtel , M. P. J. , van der Elst , W. , & Jolles , J. ( 2008 ). No protective effects of education during normal cognitive aging: Results from the 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht Aging Study . Psychology & Aging , 23 ( 1 ), 119 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Gerven , P. W. M. , Meijer , W. A. , & Jolles , J. ( 2007 ). Education does not protect against age-related decline of switching focal attention in working memory . Brain and Cognition , 64 , 158 – 163 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Gerven , P. W. M. , Meijer , W. A. , Prickaerts , J. H. M. , & van der Veen , F. M. ( 2008 ). Aging and focus switching in working memory: Excluding the potential role of memory load . Experimental Aging Research , 34 ( 4 ), 367 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hooren , S. A. H. , Valentijn , A. M. , Bosma , H. , Ponds , R. W. H. M. , van Boxtel , M. P. J. , & Jolles , J. ( 2007 ). Cognitive functioning in healthy older adults Aged 64–81: A cohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education . Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition , 14 ( 1 ), 40 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughan , L. , Basak , C. , Hartman , M. , & Verhaeghen , P. ( 2008 ). Aging and working memory inside and outside the focus of attention: dissociations of availability and accessibility . Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition , 15 ( 6 ), 1 – 22 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. , & Basak , C. ( 2005 ). Ageing and switching of the focus of attention in working memory: Results from a modified N-Back task . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A , 58 ( 1 ), 134 – 154 .
   Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. , & Hoyer , W. J. ( 2007 ). Aging, focus switching, and task switching in a continuous calculation task: Evidence toward a new working memory control process . Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition , 14 , 22 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. , & Marcoen , A. ( 1996 ). On the mechanisms of plasticity in young and older adults after instruction in the method of loci: Evidence for an amplification model . Psychology & Aging , 11 ( 1 ), 164 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. , Cerella , J. , & Basak , C. ( 2004 ). A working memory workout: How to expand the focus of serial attention from one to four items in 10 hours or less . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition , 30 ( 6 ), 1322 – 1337 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voigt , S. , & Hagendorf , H. ( 2002 ). The role of task context for component processes in focus switching . Psychologische Beiträge , 44 ( 2 ), 248 – 274 .
   Google Scholar
• Wecker , N. S. , Kramer , J. H. , Hallam , B. J. , & Delis , D. C. ( 2005 ). Mental flexibility: Age effects on switching . Neuropsychology , 19 ( 3 ), 345 – 352 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar