1,511
Views
26
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

The synthetic cathinone α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP): pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic clinical and forensic aspects

&
Pages 125-139 | Received 10 Jan 2018, Accepted 02 Mar 2018, Published online: 14 Mar 2018

References

  • Aarde SM, Vandewater S, Creehan K, Taffe MA. 2015. Alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP): Self-administration and acute drug challenges in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend. 146:e202.
  • Adamowicz P, Gieron J, Gil D, Lechowicz W, Skulska A, Tokarczyk B. 2016a. The prevalence of new psychoactive substances in biological material – a three-year review of casework in Poland. Drug Test Anal. 8:63–70.
  • Adamowicz P, Gieroń J, Gil D, Lechowicz W, Skulska A, Tokarczyk B, Zuba D. 2016b. Blood concentrations of α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP) determined in 66 forensic samples. Forensic Toxicol. 34:227–234.
  • Adas F, Berthou F, Salaun JP, Dreano Y, Amet Y. 1999. Interspecies variations in fatty acid hydroxylations involving cytochromes P450 2E1 and 4A. Toxicol Lett. 110:43–55.
  • Adas F, Salaun JP, Berthou F, Picart D, Simon B, Amet Y. 1999. Requirement for omega and (omega;-1)-hydroxylations of fatty acids by human cytochromes P450 2E1 and 4A11. J Lipid Res. 40:1990–1997.
  • Banks ML, Worst TJ, Rusyniak DE, Sprague JE. 2014. Synthetic cathinones (“Bath Salts”). J Emerg Med. 46:632–642.
  • Barbosa J, Faria J, Queiros O, Moreira R, Carvalho F, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2016. Comparative metabolism of tramadol and tapentadol: a toxicological perspective. Drug Metab Rev. 48:577–592.
  • Baumann MH, Bukhari MO, Lehner KR, Anizan S, Rice KC, Concheiro M, Huestis MA. 2017. Neuropharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), its metabolites, and related analogs. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 32:93–117.
  • Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Lehner KR. 2013. Psychoactive “bath salts”: not so soothing. Eur J Pharmacol. 698:1–5.
  • Beck O, Backberg M, Signell P, Helander A. 2018. Intoxications in the STRIDA project involving a panorama of psychostimulant pyrovalerone derivatives, MDPV copycats. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 56:256–263.
  • Beck O, Franzen L, Backberg M, Signell P, Helander A. 2016. Toxicity evaluation of α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP): results from intoxication cases within the STRIDA project. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 54:568–575.
  • Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH. 1967 Apr 18. α-Pyrrolidino ketones, in: United States Patent Office, 3314970 A.
  • Byrska B, Stanaszek R, Zuba D. 2017. Alpha-PVP as an active component of herbal highs in Poland between 2013 and 2015. Drug Test Anal. 9:1267–1274.
  • Cashman JR. 2000. Human flavin-containing monooxygenase: substrate specificity and role in drug metabolism. Curr Drug Metab. 1:181–191.
  • Chapy H, Smirnova M, Andre P, Schlatter J, Chiadmi F, Couraud PO, Scherrmann JM, Decleves X, Cisternino S. 2014. Carrier-mediated cocaine transport at the blood-brain barrier as a putative mechanism in addiction liability. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 18:pyu001.
  • Cherry SV, Rodriguez YF. 2017. Synthetic stimulant reaching epidemic proportions: flakka-induced ST-elevation myocardial infarction with intracardiac thrombi. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 31:e13–e14.
  • Coppola M, Mondola R. 2012. Synthetic cathinones: chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of a new class of designer drugs of abuse marketed as “bath salts” or “plant food”. Toxicol Lett. 211:144–149.
  • Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2016a. Metabolomics of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol: implications in toxicity. Drug Metab Rev. 48:80–87.
  • Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2016b. Metabolomics of methadone: clinical and forensic toxicological implications and variability of dose response. Drug Metab Rev. 48:568–576.
  • Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2017a. Metabolic profile of flunitrazepam: clinical and forensic toxicological aspects. Drug Metab Lett. 11:14–20.
  • Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2017b. Metabolic profile of oxazepam and related benzodiazepines: clinical and forensic aspects. Drug Metab Rev. 49:451–463.
  • Dinis-Oliveira RJ. 2017c. Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance. Drug Metab Rev. 49:84–91.
  • Dumestre-Toulet V, Brault S, Labadie M, Penouil-Pucheu F. 2017. Madness with five dollars: Two new cases of non-lethal poisoning flakka (α-PVP). Toxicologie Analytique Et Clinique. 29:111–116.
  • Eiden C, Mathieu O, Cathala P, Debruyne D, Baccino E, Petit P, Peyriere H. 2013. Toxicity and death following recreational use of 2-pyrrolidino valerophenone. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 51:899–903.
  • EMCDDA. 2016. Report on the risk assessment of 1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one (α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-PVP) in the framework of the Council Decision on new psychoactive substances, Risk Assessments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; [accessed 2018 Feb 15]. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2934/TDAK16-001ENN.pdf.
  • EMCDDA. 2017. European Drug Report 2017: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; [accessed 2018 Feb 15]. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/4541/TDAT17001ENN.pdf.
  • Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Reed JF, Kim SO, Swanson T, Johnson RA, Janowsky A. 2017. Structure-activity relationships of substituted cathinones, with transporter binding, uptake, and release. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 360:33–47.
  • Fernandes C, Tiritan ME, Pinto M. 2013. Small molecules as chromatographic tools for HPLC enantiomeric resolution: pirkle-type chiral stationary phases evolution. Chromatographia. 76:871–897.
  • Fernandez Alonso C, Quintela Jorge O, Santiago Saez AS. 2016. [Identification of the drug of abuse flakka (alpha-PVP) as suspicion of chemical submission in the Emergency Department of a tertiary hospital]. Medicina Clinica. 147:227–228.
  • Fratantonio J, Andrade L, Febo M. 2015. Designer drugs: a synthetic catastrophe. J Reward Defic Syndr. 1:82–86.
  • Gannon BM, Rice KC, Collins GT. 2017. Reinforcing effects of abused 'bath salts' constituents 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone and their enantiomers. Behav Pharmacol. 28:578–581.
  • Gannon BM, Williamson A, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Fantegrossi WE. 2016. Stereoselective effects of abused “bath salt” constituent 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone in mice: drug discrimination, locomotor activity, and thermoregulation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 356:615–623.
  • Gatch MB, Dolan SB, Forster MJ. 2015. Comparative behavioral pharmacology of three pyrrolidine-containing synthetic cathinone derivatives. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 354:103–110.
  • Giannotti G, Canazza I, Caffino L, Bilel S, Ossato A, Fumagalli F, Marti M. 2017. The cathinones MDPV and α-PVP elicit different behavioral and molecular effects following acute exposure. Neurotox Res. 32:594–602.
  • Giese C, Igoe D, Gibbons Z, Hurley C, Stokes S, McNamara S, Ennis O, O'Donnell K, Keenan E, De Gascun C, et al. 2015. Injection of new psychoactive substance snow blow associated with recently acquired HIV infections among homeless people who inject drugs in Dublin, Ireland, 2015. Euro Surveill. 20. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.40.30036.
  • Glennon RA, Young R. 2016. Neurobiology of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP). Brain Res Bull. 126:111–126.
  • Glicksberg L, Bryand K, Kerrigan S. 2016. Identification and quantification of synthetic cathinones in blood and urine using liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight (LC-Q/TOF) mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. 1035:91–103.
  • Grapp M, Sauer C, Vidal C, Muller D. 2016. GC-MS analysis of the designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone and its metabolites in urine and blood in an acute poisoning case. Forensic Sci Int. 259:e14–e19.
  • Gregg RA, Hicks C, Nayak SU, Tallarida CS, Nucero P, Smith GR, Reitz AB, Rawls SM. 2016. Synthetic cathinone MDPV downregulates glutamate transporter subtype I (GLT-1) and produces rewarding and locomotor-activating effects that are reduced by a GLT-1 activator. Neuropharmacology. 108:111–119.
  • Heikman P, Sundstrom M, Pelander A, Ojanpera I. 2016. New psychoactive substances as part of polydrug abuse within opioid maintenance treatment revealed by comprehensive high-resolution mass spectrometric urine drug screening. Hum Psychopharmacol. 31:44–52.
  • Holsztynska EJ, Domino EF. 1985. Biotransformation of phencyclidine. Drug Metab Rev. 16:285–320.
  • Huskinson SL, Naylor JE, Townsend EA, Rowlett JK, Blough BE, Freeman KB. 2017. Self-administration and behavioral economics of second-generation synthetic cathinones in male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 234:589–598.
  • Johnson PS, Johnson MW. 2014. Investigation of “Bath Salts” Use Patterns Within an Online Sample of Users in the United States. J Psychoactive Drugs.46:369–378.
  • Kaizaki A, Tanaka S, Numazawa S. 2014. New recreational drug 1-phenyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-pentanone (alpha-PVP) activates central nervous system via dopaminergic neuron. J Toxicol Sci. 39:1–6.
  • Karila L, Lafaye G, Scocard A, Cottencin O, Benyamina A. 2017. MDPV and α-PVP use in humans: The twisted sisters. Neuropharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.007.
  • Kesha K, Boggs CL, Ripple MG, Allan CH, Levine B, Jufer-Phipps R, Doyon S, Chi P, Fowler DR. 2013. Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (“bath salts”), related death: case report and review of the literature. J Forensic Sci. 58:1654–1659.
  • Kolanos R, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Hutsell BA, Banks ML, Negus SS, Glennon RA. 2015a. Stereoselective actions of methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) to inhibit dopamine and norepinephrine transporters and facilitate intracranial self-stimulation in rats. ACS Chem Neurosci. 6:771–777.
  • Kolanos R, Sakloth F, Jain AD, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Glennon RA. 2015b. Structural modification of the designer stimulant alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP) influences potency at dopamine transporters. ACS Chem Neurosci. 6:1726–1731.
  • Lassiter PS, Buser TJ. 2017. Annual review of addictions and offender counseling, volume III: Best Practices. Eugene: Resource Publications.
  • Levine M, Levitan R, Skolnik A. 2013. Compartment syndrome after “bath salts” use: a case series. Ann Emerg Med. 61:480–483.
  • Marinetti LJ, Antonides HM. 2013. Analysis of synthetic cathinones commonly found in bath salts in human performance and postmortem toxicology: method development, drug distribution and interpretation of results. J Anal Toxicol. 37:135–146.
  • Marusich JA, Antonazzo KR, Wiley JL, Blough BE, Partilla JS, Baumann MH. 2014. Pharmacology of novel synthetic stimulants structurally related to the “bath salts” constituent 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Neuropharmacology. 87:206–213.
  • Marusich JA, Lefever TW, Blough BE, Thomas BF, Wiley JL. 2016. Pharmacological effects of methamphetamine and alpha-PVP vapor and injection. Neurotoxicology. 55:83–91.
  • Matsuta S, Shima N, Kamata H, Kakehashi H, Nakano S, Sasaki K, Kamata T, Nishioka H, Miki A, Katagi M, et al. 2015. Metabolism of the designer drug α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP) in humans: identification and quantification of the phase I metabolites in urine. Forensic Sci Int. 249:181–188.
  • Milhorn HT. 2017. Substance use disorders: a guide for the primary care provider. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
  • Miller B, Kim J, Concheiro M. 2017. Stability of synthetic cathinones in oral fluid samples. Forensic Sci Int. 274:13–21.
  • Nagai H, Saka K, Nakajima M, Maeda H, Kuroda R, Igarashi A, Tsujimura-Ito T, Nara A, Komori M, Yoshida K. 2014. Sudden death after sustained restraint following self-administration of the designer drug α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone. Int J Cardiol. 172:263–265.
  • Namera A, Konuma K, Kawamura M, Saito T, Nakamoto A, Yahata M, Ohta S, Miyazaki S, Shiraishi H, Nagao M. 2014. Time-course profile of urinary excretion of intravenously administered α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone and α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone in a human. Forensic Toxicol. 32:68–74.
  • Namera A, Konuma K, Saito T, Ota S, Oikawa H, Miyazaki S, Urabe S, Shiraishi H, Nagao M. 2013. Simple segmental hair analysis for alpha-pyrrolidinophenone-type designer drugs by MonoSpin extraction for evaluation of abuse history. J Chromatogr B. 942-943:15–20.
  • Naylor JE, Freeman KB, Blough BE, Woolverton WL, Huskinson SL. 2015. Discriminative-stimulus effects of second generation synthetic cathinones in methamphetamine-trained rats. Drug Alcohol Depend. 149:280–284.
  • Negreira N, Erratico C, Kosjek T, van Nuijs AL, Heath E, Neels H, Covaci A. 2015. In vitro Phase I and Phase II metabolism of α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and methedrone by human liver microsomes and human liver cytosol. Anal Bioanal Chem. 407:5803–5816.
  • Nelson G, Shah S, Cury J. 2017. Does procalcitonin “Get High” on flakka? a case of extreme procalcitonin elevation due to psychostimulant abuse. Chest. 152:A382.
  • Nelson KH, Hempel BJ, Clasen MM, Rice KC, Riley AL. 2017. Conditioned taste avoidance, conditioned place preference and hyperthermia induced by the second generation 'bath salt' alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (alpha-PVP). Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 156:48–55.
  • Nguyen JD, Bremer PT, Ducime A, Creehan KM, Kisby BR, Taffe MA, Janda KD. 2017. Active vaccination attenuates the psychostimulant effects of α-PVP and MDPV in rats. Neuropharmacology. 116:1–8.
  • Novellas J, Lopez-Arnau R, Carbo ML, Pubill D, Camarasa J, Escubedo E. 2015. Concentrations of MDPV in rat striatum correlate with the psychostimulant effect. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 29:1209–1218.
  • Patel N, Ford L, Jones R, Bradberry SM, Vale JA. 2017. Poisoning to α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), a synthetic cathinone. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 55:159–160.
  • Potocka-Banas B, Janus T, Majdanik S, Banas T, Dembinska T, Borowiak K. 2017. Fatal intoxication with α-PVP, a synthetic cathinone derivative. J Forensic Sci. 62:553–556.
  • Prosser JM, Nelson LS. 2012. The toxicology of bath salts: a review of synthetic cathinones. J Med Toxicol. 8:33–42.
  • Quesada L, Gomila I, Yates C, Barcelo C, Puiguriguer J, Barcelo B. 2016. Elimination half-life of alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone in an acute non-fatal intoxication. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 54:531–532.
  • Rickli A, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. 2015. Monoamine transporter and receptor interaction profiles of novel psychoactive substances: para-halogenated amphetamines and pyrovalerone cathinones. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 25:365–376.
  • Rojek S, Kula K, Maciow-Glab M, Klys M. 2016. New psychoactive substance α-PVP in a traffic accident case. Forensic Toxicol. 34:403–410.
  • Salomone A, Palamar JJ, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Vincenti M. 2017. Hair testing for drugs of abuse and new psychoactive substances in a high-risk population. J Anal Toxicol. 41:376–381.
  • Sauer C, Peters FT, Haas C, Meyer MR, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. 2009. New designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. J Mass Spectrom. 44:952–964.
  • Sewalia K, Watterson LR, Hryciw A, Belloc A, Ortiz JB, Olive MF. 2017. Neurocognitive dysfunction following repeated binge-like self-administration of the synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Neuropharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.034.
  • Shima N, Katagi M, Kamata H, Matsuta S, Sasaki K, Kamata T, Nishioka H, Miki A, Tatsuno M, Zaitsu K, et al. 2014. Metabolism of the newly encountered designer drug α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone in humans: identification and quantitation of urinary metabolites. Forensic Toxicol. 32:59–67.
  • Shin H, Park J. 1994. Identification of the new metabolites of pyrovalerone by various derivatization methods in the rat urine. Korean Biochemical J. 27:357.
  • Silva B, Fernandes C, Tiritan ME, Pinto MM, Valente MJ, Carvalho M, de Pinho PG, Remiao F. 2016. Chiral enantioresolution of cathinone derivatives present in “legal highs”, and enantioselectivity evaluation on cytotoxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Forensic Toxicol. 34:372–385.
  • Simmler LD, Buser TA, Donzelli M, Schramm Y, Dieu LH, Huwyler J, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. 2013. Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro. Br J Pharmacol. 168:458–470.
  • Smith DA, Negus SS, Poklis JL, Blough BE, Banks ML. 2017. Cocaine-like discriminative stimulus effects of alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, methcathinone and their 3,4-methylenedioxy or 4-methyl analogs in rhesus monkeys. Addict Biol. 22:1169–1178.
  • Springer D, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. 2003a. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the new designer drug 3',4'-methylenedioxy-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone studied in urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. 793:377–388.
  • Springer D, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. 2003b. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the new designer drug 4'-methoxy-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone studied in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. 793:331–342.
  • Springer D, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. 2003c. Metabolism of the new designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (PPP) and the toxicological detection of PPP and 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (MPPP) studied in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. 796:253–266.
  • Springer D, Paul LD, Staack RF, Kraemer T, Maurer HH. 2003. Identification of cytochrome p450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone, a novel scheduled designer drug, in human liver microsomes. Drug Metab Dispos. 31:979–982.
  • Springer D, Peters FT, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. 2003. New designer drug 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone: studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B. 789:79–91.
  • Stanciu CN, Penders TM, Gnanasegaram SA, Pirapakaran E, Padda JS, Padda JS. 2017. The Behavioral Profile of methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (PVP) – a systematic review. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874473710666170321122226.
  • Sundstrom M, Pelander A, Simojoki K, Ojanpera I. 2016. Patterns of drug abuse among drug users with regular and irregular attendance for treatment as detected by comprehensive UHPLC-HR-TOF-MS. Drug Test Anal. 8:39–45.
  • Tyrkkö E, Pelander A, Ketola RA, Ojanperä I. 2013. In silico and in vitro metabolism studies support identification of designer drugs in human urine by liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem. 405:6697–6709.
  • Umebachi R, Aoki H, Sugita M, Taira T, Wakai S, Saito T, Inokuchi S. 2016. Clinical characteristics of alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP) poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 54:563–567.
  • UNODC. 2017a. 2017 Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment; [accessed 2018 Feb 15]. https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Global_Drugs_Assessment_2017.pdf.
  • UNODC. 2017b. World Drug Report 2017; [accessed 2018 Feb 15]. https://www.unodc.org/wdr2017/index.html.
  • Uralets V, Rana S, Morgan S, Ross W. 2014. Testing for designer stimulants: metabolic profiles of 16 synthetic cathinones excreted free in human urine. J Anal Toxicol. 38:233–241.
  • Valente MJ, Guedes de Pinho P, de Lourdes Bastos M, Carvalho F, Carvalho M. 2014. Khat and synthetic cathinones: a review. Arch Toxicol. 88:15–45.
  • Valento M, Lebin J. 2017. Emerging drugs of abuse: synthetic cannabinoids, phenylethylamines (2C Drugs), and synthetic cathinones. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 18:203–211.
  • Vickers S, Polsky SL. 2000. The biotransformation of nitrogen containing xenobiotics to lactams. Curr Drug Metab. 1:357–389.
  • WADA. 2016. Prohibited List. January 2016; [accessed 2018 Feb 15]. https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/wada-2016-prohibited-list-en.pdf.
  • Wander A. 1963 May 29. α-Pyrrolidino valerophenone. British Patent 927,475.
  • Watterson LR, Burrows BT, Hernandez RD, Moore KN, Grabenauer M, Marusich JA, Olive MF. 2014. Effects of alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone and 4-methyl-N-ethylcathinone, two synthetic cathinones commonly found in second-generation “bath salts,” on intracranial self-stimulation thresholds in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 18:pyu014.
  • Watterson LR, Olive MF. 2014. Synthetic cathinones and their rewarding and reinforcing effects in rodents. Adv Neurosci (Hindawi). 2014:209875.
  • Wille SMR, Richeval C, Nachon-Phanithavong M, Gaulier JM, Di Fazio V, Humbert L, Samyn N, Allorge D. 2017. Prevalence of new psychoactive substances and prescription drugs in the Belgian driving under the influence of drugs population. Drug Test Anal. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.2232
  • Wood MR, Bernal I, Lalancette RA. 2016. The dangerous new synthetic drug α-PVP as the hydrated chloride salt α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone hydrochloride 0.786-hydrate. Acta Crystallogr C Struct Chem. 72:48–51.
  • Wright TH, Harris C. 2016. Twenty-one cases involving alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP). J Anal Toxicol. 40:396–402.
  • Wurita A, Hasegawa K, Minakata K, Gonmori K, Nozawa H, Yamagishi I, Suzuki O, Watanabe K. 2014. Postmortem distribution of α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone in body fluids and solid tissues of a human cadaver. Leg Med (Tokyo). 16:241–246.
  • Zawilska JB, Wojcieszak J. 2017. α-Pyrrolidinophenones: a new wave of designer cathinones. Forensic Toxicol. 35:201–216.
  • Zwartsen A, Verboven AHA, van Kleef R, Wijnolts FMJ, Westerink RHS, Hondebrink L. 2017. Measuring inhibition of monoamine reuptake transporters by new psychoactive substances (NPS) in real-time using a high-throughput, fluorescence-based assay. Toxicol in Vitro. 45:60–71.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.