3,560
Views
73
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Ethanol and its metabolites: update on toxicity, benefits, and focus on immunomodulatory effects

ORCID Icon, &
Pages 545-561 | Received 14 Aug 2019, Accepted 07 Oct 2019, Published online: 24 Oct 2019

References

  • Agarwal DP. 2002. Cardioprotective effects of light-moderate consumption of alcohol: a review of putative mechanisms. Alcohol Alcohol. 37(5):409–415.
  • Agarwal DP, Goedde HW. 1989. Human aldehyde dehydrogenases: their role in alcoholism. Alcohol. 6(6):517–523.
  • Albert CM, Manson JE, Cook NR, Ajani UA, Gaziano JM, Hennekens CH. 1999. Moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of sudden cardiac death among US male physicians. Circulation. 100(9):944–950.
  • Al-Sader H, Abdul JH, Allawi Z, Haba Y. 2009. Alcohol and breast cancer: the mechanisms explained. J Clin Med Res. 1(3):125–131.
  • Anderson LA, Cantwell MM, Watson RGP, Johnston BT, Murphy SJ, Ferguson HR, McGuigan J, Comber H, Reynolds JV, Murray LJ. 2009. The association between alcohol and reflux esophagitis, barrett’s esophagus, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology. 136(3):799–805.
  • Angus RM, Sambrook PN, Pocock NA, Eisman JA. 1988. Dietary intake and bone mineral density. Bone Miner. 4(3):265–277.
  • ANSES. 2010. Evaluation des risques de l’éthanol en population professionnelle | Anses - Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail [Internet]. [accessed 2019 Oct 16]. https://www.anses.fr/fr/content/evaluation-des-risques-de-l%E2%80%99%C3%A9thanol-en-population-professionnelle-0
  • Arfsten DP, Silbergeld EK, Loffredo CA. 2004. Fetal ADH2*3, maternal alcohol consumption, and fetal growth. Int J Toxicol. 23(1):47–54.
  • Arranz S, Chiva-Blanch G, Valderas-Martínez P, Medina-Remón A, Lamuela-Raventós RM, Estruch R. 2012. Wine, beer, alcohol and polyphenols on cardiovascular disease and cancer. Nutrients. 4(7):759–781.
  • Barr T, Helms C, Grant K, Messaoudi I. 2016. Opposing effects of alcohol on the immune system. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiat. 65:242–251.
  • Bau PFD, Bau CHD, Rosito GA, Manfroi WC, Fuchs FD. 2007. Alcohol consumption, cardiovascular health, and endothelial function markers. Alcohol. 41(7):479–488.
  • Belleville J. 2002. The French paradox: possible involvement of ethanol in the protective effect against cardiovascular diseases. Nutrition. 18(2):173–177.
  • Bergmann MM, Rehm J, Klipstein-Grobusch K, Boeing H, Schutze M, Drogan D, Overvad K, Tjonneland A, Halkjaer J, Fagherazzi G. 2013. The association of pattern of lifetime alcohol use and cause of death in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Int J Epidemiol. 42(6):1772–1790.
  • Bianchini F, Vainio H. 2003. Wine and resveratrol: mechanisms of cancer prevention? Eur J Cancer Prev. 12(5):417–425.
  • Bismuth C, Baud F, Conso F, Dally S, Frejaville JP, Garnier R. 2000. Toxicologie clinique. Paris: Médecine-Sciences Flammarion.
  • Bonnard N, Falcy M, Jargot D, Pasquier E. 2011. Ethanol – Fiche toxicologique n°48 [Internet]. Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité [accessed 2018 Jul 3]. Available from: http://www.inrs.fr/publications/bdd/fichetox/fiche.html?refINRS=FICHETOX_48&section=bibliographieAuteurs
  • Brancato A, Lavanco G, Cavallaro A, Plescia F, Cannizzaro C. 2017. Acetaldehyde motivation and stress: behavioral evidence of an addictive ménage à trois. Front Behav Neurosci. 11:23.
  • Bühler M, Mann K. 2011. Alcohol and the human brain: a systematic review of different neuroimaging methods: alcohol and the human brain. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 35(10):1771–1793.
  • Burton R, Sheron N. 2018. No level of alcohol consumption improves health. The Lancet. 392(10152):987–988.
  • Carlé A, Bülow Pedersen I, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Rasmussen LB, Jørgensen T, Laurberg P. 2013. Graves′ hyperthyroidism and moderate alcohol consumption: evidence for disease prevention. Clin Endocrinol. 79(1):111–119.
  • Carle A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Rasmussen LB, Jørgensen T, Laurberg P. 2012. Moderate alcohol consumption may protect against overt autoimmune hypothyroidism: a population-based case-control study. Eur J Endocrinol. 167(4):483–490.
  • Cederbaum AI. 2012. Alcohol metabolism. Clin Liver Dis. 16(4):667–685.
  • Charness ME. 1993. Brain lesions in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 17(1):2–11.
  • Chen C-H, Walker J, Momenan R, Rawlings R, Heilig M, Hommer DW. 2012. Relationship between liver function and brain shrinkage in patients with alcohol dependence: relationship between liver function and brain shrinkage. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 36(4):625–632.
  • Council of the Netherlands TH. 2000. Ethanol, evaluation of the effects on reproduction, recommendation for classification. Committee for Compounds toxic to reproduction, a committee of the Health.
  • Crabb DW. 1995. Ethanol oxidizing enzymes: roles in alcohol metabolism and alcoholic liver disease. Prog Liver Dis. 13:151–172.
  • Das S, Santani DD, Dhalla NS. 2007. Experimental evidence for the cardioprotective effects of red wine. Exp Clin Cardiol. 12(1):5–10.
  • Davies M. 2003. The role of GABAA receptors in mediating the effects of alcohol in the central nervous system. J Psychiat Neurosci. 28(4):263–274.
  • De la Monte S, Longato L, Tong M, DeNucci S, Wands J. 2009. The liver-brain axis of alcohol-mediated neurodegeneration: role of toxic lipids. Int J Environ Res Pub Health. 6(7):2055–2075.
  • de la Monte SM. 1988. Disproportionate atrophy of cerebral white matter in chronic alcoholics. Arch Neurol. 45(9):990–992.
  • Di Castelnuovo A. 2006. Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies. Arch Intern Med. 166(22):2437.
  • Di Giuseppe D, Alfredsson L, Bottai M, Askling J, Wolk A. 2012. Long term alcohol intake and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in women: a population based cohort study. BMJ. 345:e4230.
  • Diamond T, Stiel D, Lunzer M, Wilkinson M, Posen S. 1989. Ethanol reduces bone formation and may cause osteoporosis. Am J Med. 86(3):282–288.
  • Ding Z-M, Ingraham CM, Rodd ZA, McBride WJ. 2015. The reinforcing effects of ethanol within the nucleus accumbens shell involve activation of local GABA and serotonin receptors. J Psychopharmacol. 29(6):725–733.
  • Duddempudi AT. 2012. Immunology in alcoholic liver disease. Clin Liver Dis. 16(4):687–698.
  • Edenberg HJ. 2000. Regulation of the mammalian alcohol dehydrogenase genes. Prog Nucl Acid Res Mol Biol. 64:295–341.
  • Ekström G, Ingelman-Sundberg M. 1989. Rat liver microsomal NADPH-supported oxidase activity and lipid peroxidation dependent on ethanol-inducible cytochrome P-450 (P-450IIE1). Biochem Pharmacol. 38(8):1313–1319.
  • Engler PA, Ramsey SE, Smith RJ. 2013. Alcohol use of diabetes patients: the need for assessment and intervention. Acta Diabetol. 50(2):93–99.
  • Fan S, Meng Q, Gao B, Grossman J, Yadegari M, Goldberg ID, Rosen EM. 2000. Alcohol stimulates estrogen receptor signaling in human breast cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 60(20):5635–5639.
  • Faris RF, Henein MY, Coats A. 2003. Influence of gender and reported alcohol intake on mortality in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart Dis. 5(2):89–94.
  • Felson DT, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, Kannel WB, Kiel DP. 1995. Alcohol intake and bone mineral density in elderly men and women. The Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol. 142(5):485–492.
  • Fernandezsola J, Fatjo F, Sacanella E, Estruch R, Bosch X, Urbanomarquez A, Nicolas J. 2006. Evidence of apoptosis in alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Hum Pathol. 37(8):1100–1110.
  • Fragopoulou E, Choleva M, Antonopoulou S, Demopoulos CA. 2018. Wine and its metabolic effects. A comprehensive review of clinical trials. Metabolism. 83:102–119.
  • Ganry O, Baudoin C, Fardellone P. 2000. Effect of alcohol intake on bone mineral density in elderly women: the EPIDOS Study. Epidémiologie de l’Ostéoporose. Am J Epidemiol. 151(8):773–780.
  • Garro AJ, Espina N, Farinati F, Salvagnini M. 1986. The effects of chronic ethanol consumption on carcinogen metabolism and on O6-methylguanine transferase-mediated repair of alkylated DNA. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 10(s1):73S–77S.
  • Gicquel T, Le Daré B, Boichot E, Lagente V. 2017. Purinergic receptors: new targets for the treatment of gout and fibrosis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 31(2):136–146.
  • Gil-Bernabe P, Boveda-Ruiz D, D'Alessandro-Gabazza C, Toda M, Miyake Y, Mifuji-Moroka R, Iwasa M, Morser J, Gabazza EC, Takei Y, et al. 2011. Atherosclerosis amelioration by moderate alcohol consumption is associated with increased circulating levels of stromal cell-derived factor-1. Circ J. 75(9):2269–2279.
  • Girre C, Hispard E, Tuszynski T. 1995. Toxicité de l’éthanol. Encyclopédie Médico-Chirurgicale Toxicologie-Pathologie professionnelle. Paris: Elsevier.
  • Gmel G, Gutjahr E, Rehm J. 2003. How stable is the risk curve between alcohol and all-cause mortality and what factors influence the shape? A precision-weighted hierarchical meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 18(7):631–642.
  • Gonzalez-Quintela A, Alende R, Gude F, Campos J, Rey J, Meijide LM, Fernandez-Merino C, Vidal C. 2007. Serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM) in a general adult population and their relationship with alcohol consumption, smoking and common metabolic abnormalities: serum immunoglobulin levels in adults. Clin Exp Immunol. 151(1):42–50.
  • Goulden R. 2016. Moderate alcohol consumption is not associated with reduced all-cause mortality. Am J Med. 129(2):180–186.
  • Grewal P, Viswanathen VA. 2012. Liver cancer and alcohol. Clin Liver Dis. 16(4):839–850.
  • Griswold MG, Fullman N, Hawley C, Arian N, Zimsen SRM, Tymeson HD, Venkateswaran V, Tapp AD, Forouzanfar MH, Salama JS, et al. 2018. Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet. 392(10152):1015–1035.
  • Guo R, Hu N, Kandadi MR, Ren J. 2012. Facilitated ethanol metabolism promotes cardiomyocyte contractile dysfunction through autophagy in murine hearts. Autophagy. 8(4):593–608.
  • Gupta KK, Gupta VK, Shirasaka T. 2016. An update on fetal alcohol syndrome-pathogenesis, risks, and treatment. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 40(8):1594–1602.
  • Gürtl B, Kratky D, Guelly C, Zhang L, Gorkiewicz G, Das SK, Tamilarasan KP, Hoefler G. 2009. Apoptosis and fibrosis are early features of heart failure in an animal model of metabolic cardiomyopathy: animal model of metabolic cardiomyopathy. Int J Exp Pathol. 90(3):338–346.
  • Haddad GE, Saunders L, Carles M, Crosby SD, del Monte F, Macgillivray TE, Semigran MJ, Dec GW, Hajjar RJ, Doye AA, et al. 2008. Fingerprint profile of alcohol-associated heart failure in human hearts. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 32(5):814–821.
  • Hamitouche S, Poupon J, Dreano Y, Amet Y, Lucas D. 2006. Ethanol oxidation into acetaldehyde by 16 recombinant human cytochrome P450 isoforms: role of CYP2C isoforms in human liver microsomes. Toxicol Lett. 167(3):221–230.
  • Hamon M. 2014. Bases neurobiologiques des traitements de l’alcoolo-dépendance – Quelles perspectives?. Eur Psychiat. 29(8):539.
  • Hansson GK, Libby P, SchöNbeck U, Yan Z-Q. 2002. Innate and adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 91(4):281–291.
  • Hardy CJ, Palmer BP, Muir KR, Sutton AJ, Powell RJ. 1998. Smoking history, alcohol consumption, and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study. Ann Rheum Dis. 57(8):451–455.
  • Harrison NL, Skelly MJ, Grosserode EK, Lowes DC, Zeric T, Phister S, Salling MC. 2017. Effects of acute alcohol on excitability in the CNS. Neuropharmacology. 122:36–45.
  • Heller M, Burd L. 2014. Review of ethanol dispersion, distribution, and elimination from the fetal compartment: fetal alcohol exposure. Birth Defects Res Part A. 100(4):277–283.
  • Hines LM, Hankinson SE, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Kelsey KT, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Hunter DJ. 2000. A prospective study of the effect of alcohol consumption and ADH3 genotype on plasma steroid hormone levels and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 9(10):1099–1105.
  • Hines RN, McCarver DG. 2002. The ontogeny of human drug-metabolizing enzymes: phase I oxidative enzymes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 300(2):355–360.
  • Hoffman PL, Rabe CS, Moses F, Tabakoff B. 1989. N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors and ethanol: Inhibition of calcium flux and cyclic GMP production. J Neurochem. 52(6):1937–1940.
  • Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E. 1993. A prospective study of alcohol consumption and bone mineral density. BMJ. 306(6891):1506–1509.
  • Holland MG, Ferner RE. 2017. A systematic review of the evidence for acute tolerance to alcohol – the “Mellanby effect”. Clin Toxicol. 55(6):545–556.
  • Howard AA, Arnsten JH, Gourevitch MN. 2004. Effect of alcohol consumption on diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 140(3):211.
  • Hoyt LR, Ather JL, Randall MJ, DePuccio DP, Landry CC, Wewers MD, Gavrilin MA, Poynter ME. 2016. Ethanol and other short-chain alcohols inhibit nlrp3 inflammasome activation through protein tyrosine phosphatase stimulation. J Immunol. 197(4):1322–1334.
  • Hoyt LR, Randall MJ, Ather JL, DePuccio DP, Landry CC, Qian XI, Janssen-Heininger YM, van der Vliet A, Dixon AE, Amiel E, Poynter ME. 2017. Mitochondrial ROS induced by chronic ethanol exposure promote hyper-activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Redox Biol. 12:883–896.
  • Inserm. 2012. Médicaments psychotropes: Consommations et pharmacodépendances [Internet]. Paris: Les éditions Inserm [accessed 2018 Aug 9]. Available from: http://www.ipubli.inserm.fr/bitstream/handle/10608/2072/?sequence=30&wb48617274=5B7365DD
  • Jayasekara H, English DR, Room R, MacInnis RJ. 2014. Alcohol consumption over time and risk of death: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 179(9):1049–1059.
  • Ji C. 2012. Mechanisms of alcohol-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and organ injuries. Biochem Res Int. 2012:1–12.
  • Jin Z, Xiang C, Cai Q, Wei X, He J. 2014. Alcohol consumption as a preventive factor for developing rheumatoid arthritis: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann Rheum Dis. 73(11):1962–1967.
  • Jokelainen K, Matysiak-Budnik T, Mäkisalo H, Höckerstedt K, Salaspuro M. 1996. High intracolonic acetaldehyde values produced by a bacteriocolonic pathway for ethanol oxidation in piglets. Gut. 39(1):100–104.
  • Jonsson I-M, Verdrengh M, Brisslert M, Lindblad S, Bokarewa M, Islander U, Carlsten H, Ohlsson C, Nandakumar KS, Holmdahl R, et al. 2007. Ethanol prevents development of destructive arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 104(1):258–263.
  • Kawamoto R, Kohara K, Tabara Y, Miki T, Ohtsuka N, Kusunoki T, Abe M. 2009. Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased insulin resistance independent of body mass index in Japanese community-dwelling men. Tohoku J Exp Med. 218(4):331–337.
  • Keller DL. 2016. Benefits of moderate alcohol consumption not disproven. Am J Med. 129(8):e149.
  • Keyel PA. 2014. How is inflammation initiated? Individual influences of IL-1, IL-18 and HMGB1. Cytokine. 69(1):136–145.
  • Klarich DS, Brasser SM, Hong MY. 2015. Moderate alcohol consumption and colorectal cancer risk. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 39(8):1280–1291.
  • Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Friedman GD. 1992. Alcohol and mortality. Ann Intern Med. 117(8):646–654.
  • Knott C, Bell S, Britton A. 2015. Alcohol consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of more than 1.9 million individuals from 38 observational studies. Diab Care. 38(9):1804–1812.
  • Konrad A, Vucurevic G, Lorscheider M, Bernow N, Thümmel M, Chai C, Pfeifer P, Stoeter P, Scheurich A, Fehr C. 2012. Broad disruption of brain white matter microstructure and relationship with neuropsychological performance in male patients with severe alcohol dependence. Alcohol Alcohol. 47(2):118–126.
  • Kovář J, Zemánková K. 2015. Moderate alcohol consumption and triglyceridemia. Physiol Res. 64:371–375.
  • Kunitoh S, Asai H, Imaoka S, Funae Y, Monna T. 1996. Metabolism of acetaldehyde to acetate by rat hepatic P-450s: presence of different metabolic pathway from acetaldehyde dehydrogenase system. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20(s1):22A–24A.
  • Läck AK, Ariwodola OJ, Chappell AM, Weiner JL, McCool BA. 2008. Ethanol inhibition of kainate receptor-mediated excitatory neurotransmission in the rat basolateral nucleus of the amygdala. Neuropharmacology. 55(5):661–668.
  • Laonigro I, Correale M, Di Biase M, Altomare E. 2009. Alcohol abuse and heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 11(5):453–462.
  • Le Daré B, Victoni T, Bodin A, Vlach M, Vene E, Loyer P. 2018. Ethanol upregulates the P2X7 purinergic receptor in human macrophages. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 33(1):63–74.
  • Li S, Wang N, Tan H-Y, Hong M, Yuen M-F, Li H, Feng Y. 2018. Expansion of granulocytic, myeloid-derived suppressor cells in response to ethanol-induced acute liver damage. Front Immunol. 9:1524.
  • Lin CC, Potter JJ, Mezey E. 1984. Erythrocyte aldehyde dehydrogenase activity in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 8(6):539–541.
  • Littleton J. 1998. Neurochemical mechanisms underlying alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Health Res World. 22(1):13–24.
  • Liu H-J, Pan X-X, Liu B-Q, Gui X, Hu L, Jiang C-Y, Yuan H, Yi-Xin F, Yu-Lin T, Wen-Tao L. 2017. Grape seed-derived procyanidins alleviate gout pain via NLRP3 inflammasome suppression. J Neuroinflamm. 14(1):74.
  • Longnecker MP. 1994. Alcoholic beverage consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis and review. Cancer Causes Control. 5(1):73–82.
  • Lopes da Silva A, Ruginsk SG, Uchoa ET, Crestani CC, Scopinho AA, Correa FMA, De Martinis BS, Elias LLK, Resstel LB, Antunes-Rodrigues J, et al. 2013. Time-course of neuroendocrine changes and its correlation with hypertension induced by ethanol consumption. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(4):495–504.
  • Lu Y, Cederbaum AI. 2008. CYP2E1 and oxidative liver injury by alcohol. Free Rad Biol Med. 44(5):723–738.
  • Machackova J, Barta J, Dhalla NS. 2006. Myofibrillar remodeling in cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure and cardiomyopathies. Can J Cardiol. 22(11):953–968.
  • Markoski MM, Garavaglia J, Oliveira A, Olivaes J, Marcadenti A. 2016. Molecular properties of red wine compounds and cardiometabolic benefits. Nutr Metab Insights. 9:NMI.S32909.
  • Matsui T, Sakurai H, Toyama T, Yoshimura A, Matsushita S, Higuchi S. 2012. Clinical application of neuroimaging to alcohol-related dementia. Nihon Arukoru Yakubutsu Igakkai Zasshi. 47(3):125–134.
  • Maurel DB, Boisseau N, Benhamou CL, Jaffre C. 2012. Alcohol and bone: review of dose effects and mechanisms. Osteoporos Int. 23(1):1–16.
  • Mayfield J, Ferguson L, Harris RA. 2013. Neuroimmune signaling: a key component of alcohol abuse. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 23(4):513–520.
  • McClintick JN, Tischfield JA, Deng L, Kapoor M, Xuei X, Edenberg HJ. 2019. Ethanol activates immune response in lymphoblastoid cells. Alcohol. 79:81–91.
  • McEvily AJ, Holmquist B, Auld DS, Vallee BL. 1988. 3.beta.-Hydroxy-5.beta.-steroid dehydrogenase activity of human liver alcohol dehydrogenase is specific to.gamma.-subunits. Biochemistry. 27(12):4284–4288.
  • McGovern PE, Zhang J, Tang J, Zhang Z, Hall GR, Moreau RA, Nunez A, Butrym ED, Richards MP, Wang C-S, et al. 2004. Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 101(51):17593–17598.
  • Mikosch P. 2014. Alcohol and bone. Wien Med Wochenschr. 164(1–2):15–24.
  • Müller CP, Kalinichenko LS, Tiesel J, Witt M, Stöckl T, Sprenger E, Fuchser J, Beckmann J, Praetner M, Huber SE, et al. 2017. Paradoxical antidepressant effects of alcohol are related to acid sphingomyelinase and its control of sphingolipid homeostasis. Acta Neuropathol. 133(3):463–483.
  • Muralidharan S, Ambade A, Fulham MA, Deshpande J, Catalano D, Mandrekar P. 2014. Moderate alcohol induces stress proteins HSF1 and hsp70 and inhibits proinflammatory cytokines resulting in endotoxin tolerance. J Immunol. 193(4):1975–1987.
  • Nagata C, Fujita S, Iwata H, Kurosawa Y, Kobayashi K, Kobayashi M, Motegi K, Omura T, Yamamoto M, Nose T, et al. 1995. Systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control epidemiologic study in Japan. Int J Dermatol. 34(5):333–337.
  • Nurmi K, Virkanen J, Rajamäki K, Niemi K, Kovanen PT, Eklund KK. 2013. Ethanol inhibits activation of NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasomes in human macrophages – a novel anti-inflammatory action of alcohol. PLoS ONE. 8(11):e78537.
  • O’Shea KS, Kaufman MH. 1979. The teratogenic effect of acetaldehyde: implications for the study of the fetal alcohol syndrome. J Anat. 128:65–76.
  • Obad A, Peeran A, Little JI, Haddad GE, Tarzami ST. 2018. Alcohol-mediated organ damages: heart and brain. Front Pharmacol. 9:81.
  • Osna NA, Donohue TM, Kharbanda KK. 2017. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and current management. Alcohol Res. 38(2):147–161.
  • Paganini-Hill A, Kawas CH, Corrada MM. 2016. Lifestyle factors and dementia in the oldest-old: the 90+ study. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 30(1):21–26.
  • Panchenko LF, Moiseev VS, Pirozhkov SV, Terebilina NN, Naumova TA, Baronets VI, Goncharov AS. 2015. Blood content of markers of inflammation and cytokines in patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and ischemic heart disease at various stages of heart failure. Kardiologiia. 55(3):41–48.
  • Pang M, Bala S, Kodys K, Catalano D, Szabo G. 2011. Inhibition of TLR8- and TLR4-induced Type I IFN induction by alcohol is different from its effects on inflammatory cytokine production in monocytes. BMC Immunol. 12(1):55.
  • Peters R, Peters J, Warner J, Beckett N, Bulpitt C. 2008. Alcohol, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly: a systematic review. Age Ageing. 37(5):505–512.
  • Pichini S, Morini L, Marchei E, Palmi I, Rotolo MC, Vagnarelli F, Garcia-Algar O, Vall O, Zuccaro P. 2009. Ethylglucuronide and ethylsulfate in meconium to assess gestational ethanol exposure: preliminary results in two Mediterranean cohorts. Can J Clin Pharmacol. 16(2):e370–e375.
  • Polsky S, Akturk HK. 2017. Alcohol consumption, diabetes risk, and cardiovascular disease within diabetes. Curr Diab Rep. 17(12):136
  • Porter R. 1987. Jean-Charles Sournia, Histoire de l’alcoolisme, Paris, Flammarion, 1986, 8vo, pp. 323, Fr. 125.00 (paperback). Med Hist. 31(3):372–373.
  • Rajakulendran S, Gadsby K, Deighton C. 2008. Rheumatoid arthritis, alcohol, leflunomide and methotrexate. Can changes to the BSR guidelines for leflunomide and methotrexate on alcohol consumption be justified? Musculoskelet Care. 6(4):233–246.
  • Rasheed A, Hines RN, McCarver-May DG. 1997. Variation in induction of human placental CYP2E1: possible role in susceptibility to fetal alcohol syndrome? Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 144(2):396–400.
  • Renner F, Kersbergen I, Field M, Werthmann J. 2018. Dutch courage? Effects of acute alcohol consumption on self-ratings and observer ratings of foreign language skills. J Psychopharmacol. 32(1):116–122.
  • Rodrigues P, Santos-Ribeiro S, Teodoro T, Gomes FV, Leal I, Reis JP, Goff DC, Gonçalves A, Lima JAC. 2018. Association between alcohol intake and cardiac remodeling. J Am Coll Cardiol. 72(13):1452–1462.
  • Rohwer RD, Liu S, You N-C, Buring JE, Manson JE, Song Y. 2015. Interrelationship between alcohol intake and endogenous sex-steroid hormones on diabetes risk in postmenopausal women. J Am Coll Nutr. 34(4):273–280.
  • Romeo J, Wärnberg J, Díaz LE, González-Gross M, Marcos A. 2007. Effects of moderate beer consumption on first-line immunity of healthy adults. J Physiol Biochem. 63(2):153–159.
  • Ronksley PE, Brien SE, Turner BJ, Mukamal KJ, Ghali WA. 2011. Association of alcohol consumption with selected cardiovascular disease outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 342:d671.
  • Sánchez-Sellero I, San-Román-Rodríguez E, Santos-Pérez S, Rossi-Izquierdo M, Soto-Varela A. 2018. Alcohol consumption in Menière’s disease patients. Nutr Neurosci. 1–7. DOI:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1470372
  • Schapira D. 1990. Alcohol abuse and osteoporosis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 19(6):371–376.
  • Schoonen WM, Salinas CA, Kiemeney LALM, Stanford JL. 2005. Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer in middle-aged men. Int J Cancer. 113(1):133–140.
  • Schrieks IC, Heil ALJ, Hendriks HFJ, Mukamal KJ, Beulens JWJ. 2015. The effect of alcohol consumption on insulin sensitivity and glycemic status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. Diab Care. 38(4):723–732.
  • Schröck A, Henzi A, Bütikofer P, König S, Weinmann W. 2018. Determination of the formation rate of phosphatidylethanol by phospholipase D (PLD) in blood and test of two selective PLD inhibitors. Alcohol. 73:1–7.
  • Scott J, Hassett AL, Schrepf AD, Brummett CM, Harris RE, Clauw DJ, Harte SE. 2018. Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced pain and fibromyalgia symptoms in chronic pain patients. Pain Med. 19(12):2515.
  • Seitz HK, Simanowski UA, Garzon FT, Rideout JM, Peters TJ, Koch A, Berger MR, Einecke H, Maiwald M. 1990. Possible role of acetaldehyde in ethanol-related rectal cocarcinogenesis in the rat. Gastroenterology. 98(2):406–413.
  • Seitz HK, Stickel F. 2007. Molecular mechanisms of alcohol-mediated carcinogenesis. Nat Rev Cancer. 7(8):599–612.
  • Sergent O, Pereira M, Belhomme C, Chevanne M, Huc L, Lagadic-Gossmann D. 2005. Role for membrane fluidity in ethanol-induced oxidative stress of primary rat hepatocytes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 313(1):104–111.
  • Shabtai Y, Bendelac L, Jubran H, Hirschberg J, Fainsod A. 2018. Acetaldehyde inhibits retinoic acid biosynthesis to mediate alcohol teratogenicity. Sci Rep. 8(1):347.
  • Shabtai Y, Fainsod A. 2018. Competition between ethanol clearance and retinoic acid biosynthesis in the induction of fetal alcohol syndrome. Biochem Cell Biol. 96(2):148–160.
  • Shai I, Rimm EB, Schulze MB, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. 2004. Moderate alcohol intake and markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction among diabetic men. Diabetologia. 47(10):1760–1767.
  • Shimizu Y, Sakai A, Menuki K, Mori T, Isse T, Oyama T, Kawamoto T, Nakamura T. 2011. Reduced bone formation in alcohol-induced osteopenia is associated with elevated p21 expression in bone marrow cells in aldehyde dehydrogenase 2-disrupted mice. Bone. 48(5):1075–1086.
  • Silva SM, Silva S, Meireles M, Leal S. 2015. nNOS is involved in cardiac remodeling induced by chronic ethanol consumption. Toxicology. 329:98–105.
  • Skaaby T, Kilpeläinen TO, Taylor AE, Mahendran Y, Wong A, Ahluwalia TS, Paternoster L, Trompet S, Stott DJ, Flexeder C. et al. 2018. Association of alcohol consumption with allergic disease and asthma: a multicenter Mendelian Randomization analysis. Addiction. 114(2):216–225.
  • Smith C, Gasparetto M, Jordan C, Pollyea DA, Vasiliou V. 2015. The effects of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases on disorders of hematopoiesis. In: Vasiliou V, Zakhari S, Seitz HK, Hoek JB, editors. Biological basis of alcohol-induced cancer. Cham: Springer International Publishing; p. 349–359.
  • Steinbigler P, Haberl R, König B, Steinbeck G. 2003. P-wave signal averaging identifies patients prone to alcohol-induced paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 91(4):491–494.
  • Sureshchandra S, Raus A, Jankeel A, Ligh BJK, Walter NAR, Newman N, Grant KA, Messaoudi I. 2019a. Dose-dependent effects of chronic alcohol drinking on peripheral immune responses. Sci Rep. 9(1):7847.
  • Sureshchandra S, Stull C, Ligh BJK, Nguyen SB, Grant KA, Messaoudi I. 2019b. Chronic heavy drinking drives distinct transcriptional and epigenetic changes in splenic macrophages. EBioMedicine. 43:594–606.
  • Tetrault JM, O’Connor PG. 2008. Substance abuse and withdrawal in the critical care setting. Crit Care Clin. 24(4):767–788.
  • Tizabi Y, Getachew B, Ferguson CL, Csoka AB, Thompson KM, Gomez-Paz A, Ruda-Kucerova J, Taylor RE. 2018. Low vs. high alcohol: central benefits vs. detriments. Neurotox Res. 34(4):860.
  • Tsuchiya T, Sakai A, Menuki K, Mori T, Takeuchi Y, Kanoh S, Utsunomiya H, Murai T, Isse T, Kawamoto T, Nakamura T. 2013. Disruption of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 gene results in altered cortical bone structure and increased cortical bone mineral density in the femoral diaphysis of mice. Bone. 53(2):358–368.
  • Urbano-Márquez A, Fernández-Solà J. 2004. Effects of alcohol on skeletal and cardiac muscle: alcoholic Myopathy. Muscle Nerve. 30(6):689–707.
  • Uusi-Oukari M, Korpi ER. 2010. Regulation of GABAA receptor subunit expression by pharmacological agents. Pharmacol Rev. 62(1):97–135.
  • Valenzuela CF, Bhave S, Hoffman P, Harris RA. 1998. Acute effects of ethanol on pharmacologically isolated kainate receptors in cerebellar granule neurons: comparison with NMDA and AMPA receptors. J Neurochem. 71(4):1777–1780.
  • Vasiliou V, Pappa A. 2000. Polymorphisms of human aldehyde dehydrogenases. Pharmacology. 61(3):192–198.
  • Vetreno RP, Hall JM, Savage LM. 2011. Alcohol-related amnesia and dementia: animal models have revealed the contributions of different etiological factors on neuropathology, neurochemical dysfunction and cognitive impairment. Neurobiol Learn Memory. 96(4):596–608.
  • Victor M. 1994. Alcoholic dementia. Can J Neurol Sci. 21(2):88–99.
  • Wang M, McIntee EJ, Cheng G, Shi Y, Villalta PW, Hecht SS. 2000. Identification of DNA adducts of acetaldehyde. Chem Res Toxicol. 13(11):1149–1157.
  • Wang MQ, Nicholson ME, Mahoney BS, Li Y, Perko MA. 1993. Proprioceptive responses under rising and falling BACs: a test of the Mellanby effect. Percept Mot Skills. 77(1):83–88.
  • Wattendorf DJ, Muenke M. 2005. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Am Fam Phys. 72(2):279–282.
  • Wei X, Shi X, Zhong W, Zhao Y, Tang Y, Sun W, Yin X, Bogdanov B, Kim S, McClain C, et al. 2013. Chronic alcohol exposure disturbs lipid homeostasis at the adipose tissue-liver axis in mice: analysis of triacylglycerols using high-resolution mass spectrometry in combination with in vivo metabolite deuterium labeling. PLoS ONE. 8(2):e55382.
  • Wimer W, Russel J, Kaplan H. 1983. Alcohols toxicology. Park Ridge: Noyes Data Corp.
  • World Health Organization. 2011. Global status report on alcohol and health [Internet] [accessed 2018 Sept 22]. Available from: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.pdf
  • Yasar S. 2018. Relation between alcohol consumption in midlife and dementia in late life. BMJ. 362:k3164.
  • Zhou Y, Zheng J, Li S, Zhou T, Zhang P, Li H-B. 2016. Alcoholic beverage consumption and chronic diseases. Int J Environ Res Pub Health. 13(6):522.
  • Zhukov A, Ingelman-Sundberg M. 1999. Relationship between cytochrome P450 catalytic cycling and stability: fast degradation of ethanol-inducible cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in hepatoma cells is abolished by inactivation of its electron donor NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase. Biochem J. 340(Pt 2):453–458.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.