310
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Interaction of drugs with gut microbiota modulators

Pages 181-194 | Received 28 Nov 2022, Accepted 22 Mar 2023, Published online: 04 Apr 2023

References

  • Abraham BP, Quigley EMM. 2017. Probiotics in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 46(4):769–782.
  • Abuhelwa AY, Williams DB, Upton RN, Foster DJ. 2017. Food, gastrointestinal pH, and models of oral drug absorption. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 112:234–248.
  • Ahnfelt-Rønne I, Nielsen OH, Bukhave K, Elmgreen J. 1987. Sulfasalazine and its anti-inflammatory metabolite, 5-aminosalicylic acid: effect on arachidonic acid metabolism in human neutrophils, and free radical scavenging. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Leukot Res. 17b:918–922.
  • Al-Salami H, Butt G, Fawcett JP, Tucker IG, Golocorbin-Kon S, Mikov M. 2008. Probiotic treatment reduces blood glucose levels and increases systemic absorption of gliclazide in diabetic rats. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 33(2):101–106.
  • Al-Salami H, Butt G, Tucker I, Golocorbin-Kon S, Mikov M. 2012. Probiotics decreased the bioavailability of the bile acid analog, monoketocholic acid, when coadministered with gliclazide, in healthy but not diabetic rats. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 37(2):99–108.
  • Alexander JL, Wilson ID, Teare J, Marchesi JR, Nicholson JK, Kinross JM. 2017. Gut microbiota modulation of chemotherapy efficacy and toxicity. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 14(6):356–365.
  • Alimirah M, Sadiq O, Gordon SC. 2020. Novel therapies in hepatic encephalopathy. Clin Liver Dis. 24(2):303–315.
  • Almazroo OA, Miah MK, Venkataramanan R. 2017. Drug metabolism in the liver. Clin Liver Dis. 21(1):1–20.
  • Angelucci F, Cechova K, Amlerova J, Hort J. 2019. Antibiotics, gut microbiota, and Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation. 16(1):108.
  • Ashmawy SM, El-Gizawy SA, El Maghraby GM, Osman MA. 2019. Regional difference in intestinal drug absorption as a measure for the potential effect of P-glycoprotein efflux transporters. J Pharm Pharmacol. 71(3):362–370.
  • Asnicar F, Leeming ER, Dimidi E, Mazidi M, Franks PW, Al Khatib H, Valdes AM, Davies R, Bakker E, Francis L, et al. 2021. Blue poo: impact of gut transit time on the gut microbiome using a novel marker. Gut. 70(9):1665–1674.
  • Asok Kumar K, Mazumdar K, Dutta NK, Karak P, Dastidar SG, Ray R. 2004. Evaluation of synergism between the aminoglycoside antibiotic streptomycin and the cardiovascular agent amlodipine. Biol Pharm Bull. 27(7):1116–1120.
  • Athari Nik Azm S, Djazayeri A, Safa M, Azami K, Ahmadvand B, Sabbaghziarani F, Sharifzadeh M, Vafa M. 2018. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria ameliorate memory and learning deficits and oxidative stress in β-amyloid (1–42) injected rats. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 43(7):718–726.
  • Atli O, Demir-Ozkay U, Ilgin S, Aydin TH, Akbulut EN, Sener E. 2016. Evidence for neurotoxicity associated with amoxicillin in juvenile rats. Hum Exp Toxicol. 35(8):866–876.
  • Azadkhan AK, Truelove SC, Aronson JK. 1982. The disposition and metabolism of sulphasalazine (salicylazosulphapyridine) in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 13(4):523–528.
  • Barko PC, McMichael MA, Swanson KS, Williams DA. 2018. The gastrointestinal microbiome: a review. J Vet Intern Med. 32(1):9–25.
  • Basag SH, Dunlop JR, Searle AJ, Willson RL. 1978. Metronidazole (flagyl) and misonidazole (Ro-07-0582): reduction by facultative anaerobes and cytotoxic action on hypoxic bacteria and mammalian cells in vivo. Br J Cancer Suppl. 3:132–135.
  • Basit AW, Lacey LF. 2001. Colonic metabolism of ranitidine: implications for its delivery and absorption. Int J Pharm. 227(1–2):157–165.
  • Basit AW, Newton JM, Lacey LF. 2002. Susceptibility of the H2-receptor antagonists cimetidine, famotidine and nizatidine, to metabolism by the gastrointestinal microflora. Int J Pharm. 237(1–2):23–33.
  • Basit AW, Podczeck F, Newton JM, Waddington WA, Ell PJ, Lacey LF. 2004. The use of formulation technology to assess regional gastrointestinal drug absorption in humans. Eur J Pharm Sci. 21(2–3):179–189.
  • Beckers M, Bloem BR, Verbeek MM. 2022. Mechanisms of peripheral levodopa resistance in Parkinson’s disease. NPJ Parkinsons Dis. 8(1):56.
  • Benet LZ, Bowman CM, Koleske ML, Rinaldi CL, Sodhi JK. 2019. Understanding drug-drug interaction and pharmacogenomic changes in pharmacokinetics for metabolized drugs. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn. 46(2):155–163.
  • Bibbò S, Ianiro G, Giorgio V, Scaldaferri F, Masucci L, Gasbarrini A, Cammarota G. 2016. The role of diet on gut microbiota composition. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 20(22):4742–4749.
  • Bojović K, Ignjatović ÐI, Soković Bajić S, Vojnović Milutinović D, Tomić M, Golić N, Tolinački M. 2020. Gut Microbiota dysbiosis associated with altered production of short chain fatty acids in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 10:223.
  • Brown EG, Goldman SM. 2020. Modulation of the microbiome in Parkinson’s disease: diet, drug, stool transplant, and beyond. Neurotherapeutics. 17(4):1406–1417.
  • Chan RP, Pope DJ, Gilbert AP, Sacra PJ, Baron JH, Lennard-Jones JE. 1983. Studies of two novel sulfasalazine analogs, ipsalazide and balsalazide. Dig Dis Sci. 28(7):609–615.
  • Chen HQ, Gong JY, Xing K, Liu MZ, Ren H, Luo JQ. 2021. Pharmacomicrobiomics: exploiting the drug-microbiota interactions in antihypertensive treatment. Front Med. 8:742394.
  • Chilton CH, Pickering DS, Freeman J. 2018. Microbiologic factors affecting Clostridium difficile recurrence. Clin Microbiol Infect. 24(5):476–482.
  • Choi MS, Yu JS, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2018. The role of gut microbiota in the pharmacokinetics of antihypertensive drugs. Pharmacol Res. 130:164–171.
  • Chu F, Li Y, Meng X, Li Y, Li T, Zhai M, Zheng H, Xin T, Su Z, Lin J, et al. 2021. Gut microbial dysbiosis and changes in fecal metabolic phenotype in precancerous lesions of gastric cancer induced with N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, sodium salicylate, ranitidine, and irregular diet. Front Physiol. 12:733979.
  • Cussotto S, Walsh J, Golubeva AV, Zhdanov AV, Strain CR, Fouhy F, Stanton C, Dinan TG, Hyland NP, Clarke G, et al. 2021. The gut microbiome influences the bioavailability of olanzapine in rats. EBioMedicine. 66:103307.
  • Dobkin JF, Saha JR, Butler VP, Jr., Neu HC, Lindenbaum J. 1982. Inactivation of digoxin by Eubacterium lentum, an anaerobe of the human gut flora. Trans Assoc Am Physicians. 95:22–29.
  • Dull BJ, Salata K, Goldman P. 1987. Role of the intestinal flora in the acetylation of sulfasalazine metabolites. Biochem Pharmacol. 36(21):3772–3774.
  • Fan J, de Lannoy IA. 2014. Pharmacokinetics. Biochem Pharmacol. 87(1):93–120.
  • Finegold SM. 1986. Anaerobic infections and Clostridium difficile colitis emerging during antibacterial therapy. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl. 49:160–164.
  • Fouts JR, Kamm JJ, Brodie BB. 1957. Enzymatic reduction of prontosil and other azo dyes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 120(3):291–300.
  • Fromm MF, Kauffmann HM, Fritz P, Burk O, Kroemer HK, Warzok RW, Eichelbaum M, Siegmund W, Schrenk D. 2000. The effect of rifampin treatment on intestinal expression of human MRP transporters. Am J Pathol. 157(5):1575–1580.
  • Genser D. 2008. Food and drug interaction: consequences for the nutrition/health status. Ann Nutr Metab. 52(Suppl 1):29–32.
  • Gezmen-Karadağ M, Çelik E, Kadayifçi FZ, Yeşildemir Ö, Öztürk YE, Ağagündüz D. 2018. Role of food‑drug interactions in neurological and psychological diseases. Acta Neurobiol Exp. 78(3):187–197.
  • Gingell R, Bridges JW. 1973. Intestinal azo-reduction and glucuronide conjugation of prontosil. Xenobiotica. 3(9):599–604.
  • Gingell R, Bridges JW, Williams RT. 1971. The role of the gut flora in the metabolism of prontosil and neoprontosil in the rat. Xenobiotica. 1(2):143–156.
  • Goldin BR, Peppercorn MA, Goldman P. 1973. Contributions of host and intestinal microflora in the metabolism of L-dopa by the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 186(1):160–166.
  • Goldman P, Peppercorn MA, Goldin BR. 1974. Metabolism of drugs by microorganisms in the intestine. Am J Clin Nutr. 27(11):1348–1355.
  • Gomaa EZ. 2020. Human gut microbiota/microbiome in health and diseases: a review. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 113(12):2019–2040.
  • Greenhalgh K, Meyer KM, Aagaard KM, Wilmes P. 2016. The human gut microbiome in health: establishment and resilience of microbiota over a lifetime. Environ Microbiol. 18(7):2103–2116.
  • Grenham S, Clarke G, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. 2011. Brain-gut-microbe communication in health and disease. Front Physiol. 2:94.
  • Guinane CM, Cotter PD. 2013. Role of the gut microbiota in health and chronic gastrointestinal disease: understanding a hidden metabolic organ. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 6(4):295–308.
  • Gunzburg WH, Aung MM, Toa P, Ng S, Read E, Tan WJ, Brandtner EM, Dangerfield J, Salmons B. 2020. Efficient protection of microorganisms for delivery to the intestinal tract by cellulose sulphate encapsulation. Microb Cell Fact. 19(1):216.
  • Guthrie L, Kelly L. 2019. Bringing microbiome-drug interaction research into the clinic. EBioMedicine. 44:708–715.
  • Haiser HJ, Gootenberg DB, Chatman K, Sirasani G, Balskus EP, Turnbaugh PJ. 2013. Predicting and manipulating cardiac drug inactivation by the human gut bacterium Eggerthella lenta. Science. 341(6143):295–298.
  • Harris BE, Manning BW, Federle TW, Diasio RB. 1986. Conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil by human intestinal microflora. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 29(1):44–48.
  • Hasan N, Yang H. 2019. Factors affecting the composition of the gut microbiota, and its modulation. PeerJ. 7:e7502.
  • Hattori M, Sakamoto T, Kobashi K, Namba T. 1983. Metabolism of glycyrrhizin by human intestinal flora. Planta Med. 48(1):38–42.
  • Hayllar J, Bjarnason I. 1991. Sulphasalazine in ulcerative colitis: in memoriam? Gut. 32(5):462–463.
  • Ito K, Iwatsubo T, Kanamitsu S, Ueda K, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. 1998. Prediction of pharmacokinetic alterations caused by drug-drug interactions: metabolic interaction in the liver. Pharmacol Rev. 50(3):387–412.
  • Jandhyala SM, Talukdar R, Subramanyam C, Vuyyuru H, Sasikala M, Nageshwar Reddy D. 2015. Role of the normal gut microbiota. World J Gastroenterol. 21(29):8787–8803.
  • Jang HM, Lee HJ, Jang SE, Han MJ, Kim DH. 2018. Evidence for interplay among antibacterial-induced gut microbiota disturbance, neuro-inflammation, and anxiety in mice. Mucosal Immunol. 11(5):1386–1397.
  • Javdan B, Lopez JG, Chankhamjon P, Lee YJ, Hull R, Wu Q, Wang X, Chatterjee S, Donia MS. 2020. Personalized mapping of drug metabolism by the human gut microbiome. Cell. 181(7):1661–1679.e1622.
  • Kamali F, Huang ML. 1996. Increased systemic availability of loperamide after oral administration of loperamide and loperamide oxide with cotrimoxazole. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 41(2):125–128.
  • Kantola T, Kivistö KT, Neuvonen PJ. 1998. Erythromycin and verapamil considerably increase serum simvastatin and simvastatin acid concentrations. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 64(2):177–182.
  • Kehrer DF, Sparreboom A, Verweij J, de Bruijn P, Nierop CA, van de Schraaf J, Ruijgrok EJ, de Jonge MJ. 2001. Modulation of irinotecan-induced diarrhea by cotreatment with neomycin in cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res. 7(5):1136–1141.
  • Kim DH. 2015. Gut microbiota-mediated drug-antibiotic interactions. Drug Metab Dispos. 43(10):1581–1589.
  • Kim DH, Hong SW, Kim BT, Bae EA, Park HY, Han MJ. 2000. Biotransformation of glycyrrhizin by human intestinal bacteria and its relation to biological activities. Arch Pharm Res. 23(2):172–177.
  • Kim DH, Hyun SH, Shim SB, Kobashi K. 1992. The role of intestinal bacteria in the transformation of sodium picosulfate. Jpn J Pharmacol. 59(1):1–5.
  • Kim DH, Kobashi K. 1986. The role of intestinal flora in metabolism of phenolic sulfate esters. Biochem Pharmacol. 35(20):3507–3510.
  • Kim DH, Yoon HK, Koizumi M, Kobashi K. 1992. Sulfation of phenolic antibiotics by sulfotransferase obtained from a human intestinal bacterium. Chem Pharm Bull. 40(4):1056–1057.
  • Kim IS, Yoo DH, Jung IH, Lim S, Jeong JJ, Kim KA, Bae ON, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2016. Reduced metabolic activity of gut microbiota by antibiotics can potentiate the antithrombotic effect of aspirin. Biochem Pharmacol. 122:72–79.
  • Kim JK, Choi MS, Jeong JJ, Lim SM, Kim IS, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2018. Effect of probiotics on pharmacokinetics of orally administered acetaminophen in mice. Drug Metab Dispos. 46(2):122–130.
  • Kim JK, Choi MS, Kim JY, Yu JS, Seo JI, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2021. Ginkgo biloba leaf extract suppresses intestinal human breast cancer resistance protein expression in mice: correlation with gut microbiota. Biomed Pharmacother. 140:111712.
  • Kim JK, Choi MS, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2022. The intake of coffee increases the absorption of aspirin in mice by modifying gut microbiome. Pharmaceutics. 14(4):746.
  • Kim JK, Han SK, Joo MK, Kim DH. 2021. Buspirone alleviates anxiety, depression, and colitis; and modulates gut microbiota in mice. Sci Rep. 11(1):6094.
  • Kitamura S, Sugihara K, Kuwasako M, Tatsumi K. 1997. The role of mammalian intestinal bacteria in the reductive metabolism of zonisamide. J Pharm Pharmacol. 49(3):253–256.
  • Kivistö KT, Lamberg TS, Kantola T, Neuvonen PJ. 1997. Plasma buspirone concentrations are greatly increased by erythromycin and itraconazole. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 62(3):348–354.
  • Klotz U. 1985. Clinical pharmacokinetics of sulphasalazine, its metabolites and other prodrugs of 5-aminosalicylic acid. Clin Pharmacokinet. 10(4):285–302.
  • Koch RL, Beaulieu BB, Jr., Goldman P. 1980. Role of the intestinal flora in the metabolism of misonidazole. Biochem Pharmacol. 29(24):3281–3284.
  • Koch RL, Goldman P. 1979. The anaerobic metabolism of metronidazole forms N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-oxamic acid. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 208(3):406–410.
  • Kock RL, Beaulieu BB, Jr., Chrystal EJ, Goldman P. 1981. A metronidazole metabolite in human urine and its risk. Science. 211(4480):398–400.
  • Konop M, Radkowski M, Grochowska M, Perlejewski K, Samborowska E, Ufnal M. 2018. Enalapril decreases rat plasma concentration of TMAO, a gut bacteria-derived cardiovascular marker. Biomarkers. 23(4):380–385.
  • Krishnan S, Alden N, Lee K. 2015. Pathways and functions of gut microbiota metabolism impacting host physiology. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 36:137–145.
  • Lai Y, Chu X, Di L, Gao W, Guo Y, Liu X, Lu C, Mao J, Shen H, Tang H, et al. 2022. Recent advances in the translation of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics science for drug discovery and development. Acta Pharm Sin B. 12(6):2751–2777.
  • Lange K, Buerger M, Stallmach A, Bruns T. 2016. Effects of antibiotics on gut microbiota. Dig Dis. 34(3):260–268.
  • Lavrijsen K, van Dyck D, van Houdt J, Hendrickx J, Monbaliu J, Woestenborghs R, Meuldermans W, Heykants J. 1995. Reduction of the prodrug loperamide oxide to its active drug loperamide in the gut of rats, dogs, and humans. Drug Metab Dispos. 23(3):354–362.
  • Leclercq S, Mian FM, Stanisz AM, Bindels LB, Cambier E, Ben-Amram H, Koren O, Forsythe P, Bienenstock J. 2017. Low-dose penicillin in early life induces long-term changes in murine gut microbiota, brain cytokines and behavior. Nat Commun. 8(1):15062.
  • Lee CB, Chae SU, Jo SJ, Jerng UM, Bae SK. 2021. The relationship between the gut microbiome and metformin as a key for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus. Int J Mol Sci. 22(7):3566.
  • Lee KE, Kim JK, Kim DH. 2020. Orally administered antibiotics vancomycin and ampicillin cause cognitive impairment with gut dysbiosis in mice with transient global forebrain ischemia. Front Microbiol. 11:564271.
  • Lee SC, Renwick AG. 1995. Sulphoxide reduction by rat intestinal flora and by Escherichia coli in vitro. Biochem Pharmacol. 49(11):1567–1576.
  • Lee SH, An JH, Lee HJ, Jung BH. 2012. Evaluation of pharmacokinetic differences of acetaminophen in pseudo germ-free rats. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 33(6):292–303.
  • Lepage P, Leclerc MC, Joossens M, Mondot S, Blottière HM, Raes J, Ehrlich D, Doré J. 2013. A metagenomic insight into our gut’s microbiome. Gut. 62(1):146–158.
  • Levy G. 1981. Comparative pharmacokinetics of aspirin and acetaminophen. Arch Intern Med. 141(3 Spec No):279–281.
  • Li F, Liu B, Li T, Wu Q, Xu Z, Gu Y, Li W, Wang P, Ma T, Lei H. 2020. Review of constituents and biological activities of triterpene Saponins from Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma and its solubilization characteristics. Molecules. 25(17):3904.
  • Li W, Tan F, Zhao K. 2006. Simultaneous determination of amoxicillin and ranitidine in rat plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 41(2):594–598.
  • Li Y, Zhao D, Qian M, Liu J, Pan C, Zhang X, Duan X, Zhang Y, Jia W, Wang L. 2022. Amlodipine, an anti-hypertensive drug, alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by modulating gut microbiota. Br J Pharmacol. 179(9):2054–2077.
  • Lindenbaum J, Maulitz RM, Butler VP. Jr. 1976. Inhibition of digoxin absorption by neomycin. Gastroenterology. 71(3):399–404.
  • Lindenbaum J, Rund DG, Butler VP, Jr., Tse-Eng D, Saha JR. 1981. Inactivation of digoxin by the gut flora: reversal by antibiotic therapy. N Engl J Med. 305(14):789–794.
  • Lozupone CA, Stombaugh JI, Gordon JI, Jansson JK, Knight R. 2012. Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature. 489(7415):220–230.
  • Lu H. 2007. Stereoselectivity in drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 3(2):149–158.
  • Ma X, Shin YJ, Jang HM, Joo MK, Yoo JW, Kim DH. 2021. Lactobacillus Rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium Longum alleviate colitis and cognitive impairment in mice by regulating IFN-γ to IL-10 and TNF-α to IL-10 expression ratios. Sci Rep. 11(1):20659.
  • Machavaram KK, Gundu J, Yamsani MR. 2006. Effect of ketoconazole and rifampicin on the pharmacokinetics of ranitidine in healthy human volunteers: a possible role of P-glycoprotein. Drug Metabol Drug Interact. 22(1):47–65.
  • Mahatthanatrakul W, Nontaput T, Ridtitid W, Wongnawa M, Sunbhanich M. 2007. Rifampin, a cytochrome P450 3A inducer, decreases plasma concentrations of antipsychotic risperidone in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharm Ther. 32(2):161–167.
  • Malet-Martino MC, Martino R, de Forni M, Andremont A, Hartmann O, Armand JP. 1991. Flucytosine conversion to fluorouracil in humans: does a correlation with gut flora status exist? A report of two cases using fluorine-19 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Infection. 19(3):178–180.
  • Matuskova Z, Anzenbacher P, Vecera R, Siller M, Tlaskalova-Hogenova H, Strojil J, Anzenbacherova E. 2017. Effect of lactobacillus casei on the pharmacokinetics of amiodarone in male wistar rats. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 42(1):29–36.
  • Matuskova Z, Anzenbacherova E, Vecera R, Tlaskalova-Hogenova H, Kolar M, Anzenbacher P. 2014. Administration of a probiotic can change drug pharmacokinetics: effect of E. coli Nissle 1917 on amidarone absorption in rats. PLOS One. 9(2):e87150.
  • Methaneethorn J, Chaiwong K, Pongpanich K, Sonsingh P, Lohitnavy M. 2014. A pharmacokinetic drug-drug interaction model of simvastatin and clarithromycin in humans. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2014:5703–5706.
  • Meuldermans W, Hendrickx J, Mannens G, Lavrijsen K, Janssen C, Bracke J, Le Jeune L, Lauwers W, Heykants J. 1994. The metabolism and excretion of risperidone after oral administration in rats and dogs. Drug Metab Dispos. 22(1):129–138.
  • Müller M, Hermes GDA, Canfora EE, Smidt H, Masclee AAM, Zoetendal EG, Blaak EE. 2020. Distal colonic transit is linked to gut microbiota diversity and microbial fermentation in humans with slow colonic transit. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 318(2):G361–g369.
  • Nakanishi T, Tamai I. 2015. Interaction of drug or food with drug transporters in intestine and liver. Curr Drug Metab. 16(9):753–764.
  • Ochs HR, Greenblatt DJ, Eichelkraut W, LeDuc BW, Powers JF, Hahn N. 1991. Contribution of the gastrointestinal tract to lorazepam conjugation and clonazepam nitroreduction. Pharmacology. 42(1):36–48.
  • Pant A, Maiti TK, Mahajan D, Das B. 2022. Human gut microbiota and drug metabolism. Microb Ecol. 1, 1–15.
  • Parvez MM, Basit A, Jariwala PB, Gáborik Z, Kis E, Heyward S, Redinbo MR, Prasad B. 2021. Quantitative investigation of irinotecan metabolism, transport, and gut microbiome activation. Drug Metab Dispos. 49(8):683–693.
  • Peppercorn MA, Goldman P. 1973. Distribution studies of salicylazosulfapyridine and its metabolites. Gastroenterology. 64(2):240–245.
  • Plaza-Diaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Gil-Campos M, Gil A. 2019. Mechanisms of action of probiotics. Adv Nutr. 10(suppl_1): s49–s66.
  • Purohit SD, Johri SC, Gupta PR, Mehta YR, Bhatnagar M. 1992. Ranitidine–rifampicin interaction. J Assoc Physicians India. 40(5):308–310.
  • Qian G, Ho JWK. 2020. Challenges and emerging systems biology approaches to discover how the human gut microbiome impact host physiology. Biophys Rev. 12(4):851–863.
  • Rafii F, Sutherland JB, Hansen EB, Jr., Cerniglia CE. 1997. Reduction of nitrazepam by Clostridium leptum, a nitroreductase-producing bacterium isolated from the human intestinal tract. Clin Infect Dis. 25(Suppl 2):S121–S122.
  • Ratnaike RN, Jones TE. 1998. Mechanisms of drug-induced diarrhoea in the elderly. Drugs Aging. 13(3):245–253.
  • Ravindran S, Suthar JK, Rokade R, Deshpande P, Singh P, Pratinidhi A, Khambadkhar R, Utekar S. 2018. Pharmacokinetics, metabolism, distribution and permeability of nanomedicine. Curr Drug Metab. 19(4):327–334.
  • Ren Y, Nie L, Zhu S, Zhang X. 2022. Nanovesicles-mediated drug delivery for oral bioavailability enhancement. Int J Nanomedicine. 17:4861–4877.
  • Ridlon JM, Ikegawa S, Alves JM, Zhou B, Kobayashi A, Iida T, Mitamura K, Tanabe G, Serrano M, De Guzman A, et al. 2013. Clostridium Scindens: a human gut microbe with a high potential to convert glucocorticoids into androgens. J Lipid Res. 54(9):2437–2449.
  • Rinninella E, Raoul P, Cintoni M, Franceschi F, Miggiano GAD, Gasbarrini A, Mele MC. 2019. What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms. 7(1):14.
  • Rodin SM, Johnson BF. 1988. Pharmacokinetic interactions with digoxin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 15(4):227–244.
  • Rowland I, Gibson G, Heinken A, Scott K, Swann J, Thiele I, Tuohy K. 2018. Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food components. Eur J Nutr. 57(1):1–24.
  • Saha JR, Butler VP, Jr., Neu HC, Lindenbaum J. 1983. Digoxin-inactivating bacteria: identification in human gut flora. Science. 220(4594):325–327.
  • Saksena S, Goyal S, Raheja G, Singh V, Akhtar M, Nazir TM, Alrefai WA, Gill RK, Dudeja PK. 2011. Upregulation of P-glycoprotein by probiotics in intestinal epithelial cells and in the dextran sulfate sodium model of colitis in mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 300(6):G1115–G1123.
  • Sandler M, Karoum F, Ruthven CR, Calne DB. 1969. m-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid formation from L-dopa in man: suppression by neomycin. Science. 166(3911):1417–1418.
  • Saputri FA, Kang D, Kusuma ASW, Rusdiana T, Hasanah AN, Surono IS, Koyama H, Abdulah, R, Mutakin  . 2018. Lactobacillus Plantarum IS-10506 probiotic administration increases amlodipine absorption in a rabbit model. J Int Med Res. 46(12):5004–5010.
  • Scherrmann JM. 2009. Transporters in absorption, distribution, and elimination. Chem Biodivers. 6(11):1933–1942.
  • Schmidt LE, Dalhoff K. 2002. Food-drug interactions. Drugs. 62(10):1481–1502.
  • Scorza C, Piccini C, Martínez Busi M, Abin Carriquiry JA, Zunino P. 2019. Alterations in the gut microbiota of rats chronically exposed to volatilized cocaine and its active adulterants caffeine and phenacetin. Neurotox Res. 35(1):111–121.
  • Shin NR, Lee JC, Lee HY, Kim MS, Whon TW, Lee MS, Bae JW. 2014. An increase in the Akkermansia spp. population induced by metformin treatment improves glucose homeostasis in diet-induced obese mice. Gut. 63(5):727–735.
  • Shu YZ, Kingston DG, Van Tassell RL, Wilkins TD. 1991. Metabolism of levamisole, an anti-colon cancer drug, by human intestinal bacteria. Xenobiotica. 21(6):737–750.
  • Smith GE, Griffiths LA. 1974. Metabolism of N-acylated and O-alkylated drugs by the intestinal microflora during anaerobic incubation in vitro. Xenobiotica. 4(8):477–487.
  • Smith TW. 1985. Pharmacokinetics, bioavailability and serum levels of cardiac glycosides. J Am Coll Cardiol. 5(5):43A–50A.
  • Sousa T, Paterson R, Moore V, Carlsson A, Abrahamsson B, Basit AW. 2008. The gastrointestinal microbiota as a site for the biotransformation of drugs. Int J Pharm. 363(1–2):1–25.
  • Stojančević M, Bojić G, Salami HA, Mikov M. 2014. The influence of intestinal tract and probiotics on the fate of orally administered drugs. Curr Issues Mol Biol. 16:55–68.
  • Strong HA, Renwick AG, George CF. 1984. The site of reduction of sulphinpyrazone in the rabbit. Xenobiotica. 14(10):815–826.
  • Strong HA, Renwick AG, George CF, Liu YF, Hill MJ. 1987. The reduction of sulphinpyrazone and sulindac by intestinal bacteria. Xenobiotica. 17(6):685–696.
  • Suarez-Almazor ME, Belseck E, Shea B, Wells G, Tugwell P. 2000. Sulfasalazine for rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 1998(2):Cd000958.
  • Takeno S, Hirano Y, Kitamura A, Sakai T. 1993. Comparative developmental toxicity and metabolism of nitrazepam in rats and mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 121(2):233–238.
  • Takeno S, Nakagawa M, Sakai T. 1990. Teratogenic effects of nitrazepam in rats. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 69(1):59–70.
  • Testa B, Krämer SD. 2009. The biochemistry of drug metabolism–an introduction: part 5. Metabolism and bioactivity. C&B. 6(5):591–684.
  • Tisdale WA, Fenster LF, Klatskin G. 1960. Acute staphylococcal enterocolitis complicating oral neomycin therapy in cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. 263:1014–1016.
  • Umu ÖC, Rudi K, Diep DB. 2017. Modulation of the gut microbiota by prebiotic fibres and bacteriocins. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 28(1):1348886.
  • van Berlo CL, van Leeuwen PA, Soeters PB. 1988. Porcine intestinal ammonia liberation. Influence of food intake, lactulose and neomycin treatment. J Hepatol. 7(2):250–257.
  • van de Steeg E, Schuren FHJ, Obach RS, van Woudenbergh C, Walker GS, Heerikhuisen M, Nooijen IHG, Vaes WHJ. 2018. An ex vivo fermentation screening platform to study drug metabolism by human gut microbiota. Drug Metab Dispos. 46(11):1596–1607.
  • Vermes A, Kuijper EJ, Guchelaar HJ, Dankert J. 2003. An in vitro study on the active conversion of flucytosine to fluorouracil by microorganisms in the human intestinal microflora. Chemotherapy. 49(1–2):17–23.
  • Weersma RK, Zhernakova A, Fu J. 2020. Interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome. Gut. 69(8):1510–1519.
  • Yamamoto M, Kurita A, Asahara T, Takakura A, Katono K, Iwasaki M, Ryuge S, Wada M, Onoda S, Yanaihara T. 2008. Metabolism of irinotecan and its active metabolite SN-38 by intestinal microflora in rats. Oncol Rep. 20(4):727–730.
  • Yang T, Mei X, Tackie-Yarboi E, Akere MT, Kyoung J, Mell B, Yeo JY, Cheng X, Zubcevic J, Richards EM, et al. 2022. Identification of a gut commensal that compromises the blood pressure-lowering effect of ester angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Hypertension. 79(8):1591–1601.
  • Yendapally R, Sikazwe D, Kim SS, Ramsinghani S, Fraser-Spears R, Witte AP, La-Viola B. 2020. A review of phenformin, metformin, and imeglimin. Drug Dev Res. 81(4):390–401.
  • Yoo DH, Kim IS, Van Le TK, Jung IH, Yoo HH, Kim DH. 2014. Gut microbiota-mediated drug interactions between lovastatin and antibiotics. Drug Metab Dispos. 42(9):1508–1513.
  • Yoo HH, Kim IS, Yoo D-H, Kim D-H. 2016. Effects of orally administered antibiotics on the bioavailability of amlodipine: gut microbiota-mediated drug interaction. J Hypertens. 34(1):156–162.
  • Zhang J, Chen Y, Sun Y, Wang R, Zhang J, Jia Z. 2018. Plateau hypoxia attenuates the metabolic activity of intestinal flora to enhance the bioavailability of nifedipine. Drug Deliv. 25(1):1175–1181.
  • Zhang X, Han Y, Huang W, Jin M, Gao Z. 2021. The influence of the gut microbiota on the bioavailability of oral drugs. Acta Pharm Sin B. 11(7):1789–1812.
  • Zhao TS, Xie LW, Cai S, Xu JY, Zhou H, Tang LF, Yang C, Fang S, Li M, Tian Y. 2021. Dysbiosis of gut microbiota is associated with the progression of radiation-induced intestinal injury and is alleviated by oral compound probiotics in mouse model. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 11:717636.
  • Zimmermann M, Zimmermann-Kogadeeva M, Wegmann R, Goodman AL. 2019a. Mapping human microbiome drug metabolism by gut bacteria and their genes. Nature. 570(7762):462–467.
  • Zimmermann M, Zimmermann-Kogadeeva M, Wegmann R, Goodman AL. 2019b. Separating host and microbiome contributions to drug pharmacokinetics and toxicity. Science. 363(6427):aat9931.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.