Optimal Time-of-Day and Consolidation of Learning in Younger and Older Adults

REFERENCES

• Adan , A. ( 1991 ). Influence of morningness eveningness preference in the relationship between body-temperature and performance—A diurnal study . Personality and Individual Differences , 12 , 1159 – 1169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , N. D. & Craik , F. I. M. ( 2000 ). Memory in the aging brain . In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Balota , D. A. & Spieler , D. H. ( 1999 ). Word frequency, repetition, and lexical effects in word recognition tasks: Beyond measures of central tendency . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 128 , 32 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baltes , P. B. ( 1997 ). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny. Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory . Amerincan Psychologist , 52 , 366 – 380 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berardi , A. , Parasuraman , R. , & Haxby , J. V. (2001). Overall vigilance and sustained attention decrements in healthy aging. Experimental Aging Research , 27, 19–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodenhausen , G. V. ( 1990 ). Stereotypes as judgement hueristics: Evidence of circadian variations in discrimination . Psychological Science , 1 , 319 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buela-Casal , G. , Caballo , V. E. , & Cueto , E. ( 1990 ). Differences between morning and evening types in performance . Personality and Individual Differences , 11 , 447 – 450 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crossman , E. R. & Szafran , J. ( 1956 ). Changes with age in the speed of information-intake and discrimination . In Experimental Supplementum IV: Symposium on Experimental Gerontology (pp. 128 – 134 ). Basel , Switzerland : Birkhauser .
   Google Scholar
• Dijk , D. J. & Czeisler , C. A. ( 1993 ). Body-temperature is elevated during the rebound of slow-wave sleep following 40-h of sleep-deprivation on a constant routine . Journal of Sleep Research , 2 , 117 – 120 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dijk , D. J. , Duffy , J. F. , Riel , E. , Shanahan , T. L. , & Czeisler , C. A. ( 1999 ). Ageing and the circadian and homeostatic regulation of human sleep during forced desynchrony of rest, melatonin and temperature rhythms . Journal of Physiology (London) , 516 , 611 – 627 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck , H. J. ( 1982 ). A model for intelligence . Heidelberg : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. , Cooper , B. P. , Hertzog , C. , & Anderson-Garlach , M. ( 1995 ). Age-related retention of skilled memory search: Examination of associative learning, interference, and task-specific skills . Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Science and Social Science , 50 , P150 – P161 .
   Google Scholar
• Fisk , J. E. & Warr , P. B. ( 1998 ). Associative learning and short-term forgetting as a function of age, perceptual speed, and central executive functioning . Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Science , 53 , P112 – P121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkard , S. ( 1983 ). Diurnal variation . In G. R. J. Hockey (Ed.), Stress and fatigue in human performance (pp. 245 – 272 ). New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Hasher , L. , Chung , C. , May , C. P. , & Foong , N. ( 2002 ). Age, time of testing, and proactive interference . Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology , 56 , 200 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasher , L. & Zacks , R. T. ( 1988 ). Working memory, comprehension and aging: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 22 , pp. 193 – 225 .) San Diego , CA : Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hasher , L. , Zacks , R. T. , & May , C. P. ( 2000 ). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age . In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance, XVII. Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hertzog , C. , Dixon , R. A. , & Hultsch , D. F. ( 1992 ). Intraindividual change in text recall of the elderly . Brain and Language , 42 , 248 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan , M. J. ( 2003 ). Average speed or variable speed—What do older adults really need? Irish Journal of Psychology , 24 , 161 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• Hogan , M. J. ( 2004 ). The cerebellum in thought and action: A fronto-cerebellar aging hypothesis . New Ideas in Psychology , 22 , 97 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Hogan , M. J. ( 2005 ). Physical and cognitive activity and exercise for older adults: A review . International Journal of Aging and Human Development , 60 , 95 – 126 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan , M. J. , Carolan , L. , Roche , R. A. P. , Dockree , P. M. , Kaiser , J. , et al.. (2006). Electrophysiological and information processing variability predicts memory decrements associated with normal age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Brain Research , 1119, 215–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horne , J. A. , Brass , C. G. , & Pettitt , A. N. ( 1980 ). Circadian performance differences between morning and evening types . Ergonomics , 23 , 29 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horne , J. A. & Ostberg , O. ( 1977 ). Individual-differences in human circadian-rhythms . Biological Psychology , 5 , 179 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hultsch , D. F. , MacDonald , S. W. , & Dixon , R. A. ( 2002 ). Variability in reaction time performance of younger and older adults . Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Science , 57 , P101 – P115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Intons-Peterson , M. J. , Rocchi , P. , West , T. , McLellan , K. , & Hackney , A. ( 1999 ). Age, testing at preferred or nonpreferred times (testing optimality), and false memory . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 25 , 23 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , L. & Hoyer , W. J. ( 2000 ). Instance-based automaticity and aging: Acquisition, reacquisition, and long-term retention . Psychology and Aging , 15 , 551 – 565 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen , A. R. ( 1992 ). The importance of intra-individual variation in reaction time . Personality and Individual Differences , 13 , 869 – 881 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerkhof , G. A. ( 1985 ). Inter-individual differences in the human circadian system—A review . Biological Psychology , 20 , 83 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer , A. F. , Hahn , S. , & Gopher , D. ( 1999 ). Task coordination and aging: explorations of executive control processes in the task switching paradigm . Acta Psychologica , 101 , 339 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer , A. F. , Larish , J. F. , Weber , T. A. , & Bardell , L. ( 1998 ). Training for executive control: Task coordination strategies and aging . In S. Monsell & J. Driver (Eds.), Control of cognitive processes: Attention and performance XVIII . Cambridge MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Leirer , V. O. , Tanke , E. D. , & Morrow , D. G. ( 1994 ). Time of day and naturalistic prospective memory . Experimental Aging Research , 20 , 127 – 134 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , S. & Lindenberger , U. ( 1998 ). Cross-level unification: A computational exploration of the link between deterioration of neurotransmitter systems and dedifferentiation of cognitive abilities in old age . In L. G. Nilsson & H. Markowitsch (Eds.), Neuroscience of memory . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Logan , G. D. ( 1992 ). Shapes of reaction-time distributions and shapes of learning curves: a test of the instance theory of automaticity . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 18 , 883 – 914 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May , C. P. & Hasher , L. ( 1998 ). Synchrony effects in inhibitory control over thought and action . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 24 , 363 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May , C. P. , Hasher , L. , & Stoltzfus , E. R. ( 1993 ). Optimal time of day and the magnitude of age differences in memory . Psychological Science , 4 , 326 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mecacci , L. , Zani , A. , Rocchetti , G. , & Lucioli , R. ( 1986 ). The relationships between morningness eveningness, aging and personality . Personality and Individual Differences , 7 , 911 – 913 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mewhort , D. J. K. , Braun , J. G. , & Heathcote , A. (1992). Response-time distributions and the Stroop Task—A test of the Cohen, Dunbar, and Mcclelland (1990) model. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance , 18, 872–882.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morse , C. K. ( 1993 ). Does variability increase with age? An archival study of cognitive measures . Psychology and Aging , 8 , 156 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myerson , J. & Hale , S. ( 1993 ). General slowing and age invariance in cognitive processing: The other side of the coin . In J. Cerella & J. M. Rybash (Eds.), Adult information processing: Limits on loss . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nelson , H. E. ( 1982 ). National Adult Reading Test (NART): Test manual . Windsor , UK: NFER-Nelson Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Nesselroade , J. R. & Ram , N. ( 2004 ). Studying intra-individual variability: What we have learned that will help us understand lives in context . Research in Human Development , 1 , 9 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesselroade , J. R. & Salthouse , T. A. ( 2004 ). Methodological and theoretical implications of intraindividual variability in perceptual-motor performance . Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 59B , P49 – P55 .
   Google Scholar
• Petros , T. V. , Beckwith , B. E. , & Anderson , M. ( 1990 ). Individual differences in the effects of time of day and passage difficulty on prose memory in adults . British Journal of Psychology , 81 , 63 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabbitt , P. M. , Osman , P. , Moore , B. , & Stollery , B. ( 2001 ). There are stable individual differences in performance variability, both from moment to moment and from day to day . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 54 , 981 – 1003 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabbitt , P. M. & Patrick , D. ( 2001 ). Measurement indices, functional characteristics and psychometric constructs in cognitive ageing . In T. J. Perfect & E. A. Maylor (Eds.), Models for cognitive ageing . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , I. H. & Murre , J. M. ( 1999 ). Rehabilitation of brain damage: Brain plasticity and principles of guided recovery . Psychological Bulletin , 125 , 544 – 575 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers , W. A. , Hertzog , C. , & Fisk , A. D. ( 2000 ). An individual differences analysis of ability and strategy influences: age-related differences in associative learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning, Memory and Cognition , 26 , 359 – 394 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. ( 1996 ). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition . Psychological Review , 103 , 403 – 428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scialfa , C. T. , Jenkins , L. , Hamaluk , E. , & Skaloud , P. ( 2000 ). Aging and the development of automaticity in conjunction search . Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 55 , P27 – P46 .
   Google Scholar
• Strauss , E. , MacDonald , S. W. , Hunter , M. , Moll , A. , & Hultsch , D. F. ( 2002 ). Intraindividual variability in cognitive performance in three groups of older adults: Cross-domain links to physical status and self-perceived affect and beliefs . Journal of the International Neuropsycholical Society , 8 , 893 – 906 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Breukelen , G. J. , Roskam , E. E. , Eling , P. A. , Jansen , R. W. , Souren , D. A. , & Ickenroth , J. G. ( 1995 ). A model and diagnostic measures for response time series on tests of concentration: historical background, conceptual framework, and some applications . Brain and Cognition , 27 , 147 – 179 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , W. B. & Bonnet , M. H. ( 1978 ). Sleep of morning and evening types . Biological Psychology , 7 , 29 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. (1971). Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale . New York : The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• West , R. , Murphy , K. J. , Armilio , M. L. , Craik , F. I. , & Stuss , D. T. ( 2002 ). Lapses of intention and performance variability reveal age-related increases in fluctuations of executive control . Brain and Cognition , 49 , 402 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , G. D. ( 1990 ). Personality, time of day and arousal . Personality and Individual Differences , 11 , 153 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon , C. , Goldstein , D. , May , C.P. , and Hasher , L. ( 2006 ). Aging, circadian arousal patterns, and cognition . In D. Park and N. Schwarz (Eds.), Cognitive aging: A student primer ( , 2nd ed. ). Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zigmond , A. S. & Snaith , R. P. ( 1983 ). The hospital anxiety and depression scale . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 67 , 361 – 370 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar