The Emotional Stroop as an Emotion Regulation Task

REFERENCES

• Aldao, A. (2013). The future of emotion regulation research: Capturing context. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8,. 155–172. doi: 10.1177/1745691612459518
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Algom, D., Chajut, E., & Lev, S. (2004). A rational look at the emotional stroop phenomenon: A generic slowdown, not a Stroop effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 323–338. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.133.3.323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Algom, D., Zakay, D., Monar, O., & Chajut, E. (2009). Wheel chairs and arm chairs: A novel experimental design for the emotional Stroop effect. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 1552–1564. doi: 10.1080/02699930802490243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashley, V., & Swick, D. (2009). Consequences of emotional stimuli: Age differences on pure and mixed blocks of the emotional Stroop. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 5, 14. doi: 10.1186/1744-9081-5-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Haim, M. S., Mama, Y., Icht, M., & Algom, D. (2014). Is the emotional Stroop task a special case of mood induction? Evidence from sustained effects of attention under emotion. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 76, 81–97. doi: 10.3758/s13414-013-0545-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard-Fields, F. (2007). Everyday problem solving and emotion: An adult developmental perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 26–31. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00469.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchette, I., & Richards, A. (2013). Is emotional Stroop interference linked to affective responses? Evidence from skin conductance and facial electromyography. Emotion, 13, 129–138. doi: 10.1037/a0029520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 49–59. doi: 10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtstädter, J., & Renner, G. (1990). Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping. Psychology and Aging, 5, 58–67. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.5.1.58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briesemeister, B. B., Kuchinke, L., & Jacobs, A. M. (2011). Discrete Emotion Norms for Nouns: Berlin Affective Word List (DENN–BAWL). Behavior Research Methods, 43, 441–448. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0059-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331–338. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312, 1913–1915. doi: 10.1126/science.1127488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American Psychologist, 54, 165–181. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.54.3.165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstensen, L. L., Mikels, J. A., & Mather, M. (2006). Aging and the intersection of cognition, motivation and emotion. In J. Birren, & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (6th ed., pp. 343–362). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chajut, E., Mama, Y., Levy, L., & Algom, D. (2010). Avoiding the approach trap: A response bias theory of the emotional Stroop effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1567–1572. doi: 10.1037/a0020710
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, S. T. (2010). Strength and vulnerability integration: A model of emotional well-being across adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1068–1091. doi: 10.1037/a0021232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007). Emotion regulation and aging. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 307–327). New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Charles, S. T., & Luong, G. (2013). Emotional experience across adulthood: The theoretical model of strength and vulnerability integration. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 443–448. doi: 10.1177/0963721413497013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolcos, S., Katsumi, Y., & Dixon, R. A. (2014). The role of arousal in the spontaneous regulation of emotions in healthy aging: A fMRI investigation. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 681. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00681
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229–238. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster, S. M., Davis, H. P., & Kisley, M. A. (2013). Brain responses to emotional images related to cognitive ability in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 28, 179–190. doi: 10.1037/a0030928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, L. D., Newman, F. L., & Jaccard, J. (2007). Psychosocial outcomes in later life: A multivariate model. Psychology and Aging, 22, 676–689. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frings, C., Englert, J., Wentura, D., & Bermeitinger, C. (2010). Decomposing the emotional Stroop effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 42–49. doi: 10.1080/17470210903156594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frings, C., & Wühr, P. (2012). Don’t be afraid of irrelevant words: The emotional Stroop effect is confined to attended words. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 1056–1068. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2011.638908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
   Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haase, C. M., Heckhausen, J., & Wrosch, C. (2013). Developmental regulation across the life span: Toward a new synthesis. Developmental Psychology, 49, 964–972. doi: 10.1037/a0029231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacowitz, D. M., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2012). Linking process and outcome in the study of emotion and aging. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 3–17. doi: 10.1177/1745691611424750
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacowitz, D. M., Toner, K., & Neupert, S. D. (2009). Use of gaze for real-time mood regulation: Effects of age and attentional functioning. Psychology and Aging, 24, 989–994. doi: 10.1037/a0017706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006). Selective preference in visual fixation away from negative images in old age? An eye-tracking study. Psychology and Aging, 21, 40–48. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain, E., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2010). Compensatory effects of emotion avoidance in adult development. Biological Psychology, 84, 497–513. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, D. R., & Whiting, W. L. (2013). Detecting subtle expressions: Older adults demonstrate automatic and controlled positive response bias in emotional perception. Psychology and Aging, 28, 172–178. doi: 10.1037/a0029914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2004). The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 15, 208–214. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503011.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kensinger, E. A. (2008). Age differences in memory for arousing and nonarousing emotional words. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63, P13–P18. doi: 10.1093/geronb/63.1.P13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, M., Seymour, T. L., Gaunt, J. T., Baker, C., Nesmith, K., & Mather, M. (2007). Aging and goal-directed emotional attention: Distraction reverses emotional biases. Emotion, 7, 705–714. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krohne, H. W., Egloff, B., Kohlmann, C.-W., & Tausch, A. (1996). Untersuchungen mit einer deutschen version der ‘Positive and Negative Affect Schedule’ (PANAS). Diagnostica, 42, 139–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaMonica, H. M., Keefe, R. S. E., Harvey, P. D., Gold, J. M., & Goldberg, T. E. (2010). Differential effects of emotional information on interference task performance across the life span. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2, 1–5. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2010.00141
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, T., Fung, H. H., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011). The role of dispositional reappraisal in the age-related positivity effect. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66B, 56–60. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbq074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Aging and attentional biases for emotional faces. Psychological Science, 14, 409–415. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.01455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mather, M., & Knight, M. (2005). Goal-directed memory: The role of cognitive control in older adults’ emotional memory. Psychology and Aging, 20, 554–570. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenna, F. P. (1986). Effects of unattended emotional stimuli on color-naming performance. Current Psychology, 5, 3–9. doi: 10.1007/bf02686591
   Google Scholar
• McKenna, F. P., & Sharma, D. (1995). Intrusive cognitions: An investigation of the emotional Stroop task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1595–1607. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.21.6.1595
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenna, F. P., & Sharma, D. (2004). Reversing the emotional Stroop effect reveals that it is not what it seems: The role of fast and slow components. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 382–392. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.30.2.382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikels, J. A., Larkin, G. R., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Carstensen, L. L. (2005). Divergent trajectories in the aging mind: Changes in working memory for affective versus visual information with age. Psychology and Aging, 20, 542–553. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Dixon, C., Fisher, S., Twelftree, H., & McWilliams, A. (2000). Trait anxiety, defensiveness and selective processing of threat: An investigation using two measures of attentional bias. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 1063–1077. doi: 10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00157-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, L. B., & McKenna, F. P. (1996). The colour naming of socially threatening words. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 801–803. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(96)00019-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phaf, R. H., & Kan, K.-J. (2007). The automaticity of emotional Stroop: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 184–199. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratto, F., & John, O. P. (1991). Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of negative social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 380–391. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J. ( 2002, May). Calculation for the test of the difference between two independent correlation coefficients [Computer software]. Retrieved from http://quantpsy.org
   Google Scholar
• Reed, A. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2012). The theory behind the age-related positivity effect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1–9. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00339
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riemann, B. C., & McNally, R. J. (1995). Cognitive processing of personally relevant information. Cognition & Emotion, 9, 325–340. doi: 10.1080/02699939508408970
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothermund, K., & Brandtstädter, J. (2003). Coping with deficits and losses in later life: From compensatory action to accommodation. Psychology and Aging, 18, 896–905. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.896
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheibe, S., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Emotional aging: Recent findings and future trends. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B, 135–144. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbp132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlagman, S., Schulz, J., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2006). A content analysis of involuntary autobiographical memories: Examining the positivity effect in old age. Memory, 14, 161–175. doi: 10.1080/09658210544000024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwager, S., & Rothermund, K. (2013). Counter-regulation triggered by emotions: Positive/negative affective states elicit opposite valence biases in affective processing. Cognition & Emotion, 27, 839–855. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2012.750599
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppes, G., Catran, E., & Meiran, N. (2009). Reappraisal (but not distraction) is going to make you sweat: Physiological evidence for self-control effort. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71, 91–96. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.06.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppes, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Is timing everything? Temporal considerations in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 319–331. doi: 10.1177/1088868310395778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppes, G., Luria, R., Fukuda, K., & Gross, J. J. (2013). There’s more to anxiety than meets the eye: Isolating threat-related attentional engagement and disengagement biases. Emotion, 13, 520–528.
   Google Scholar
• Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. J. (2012). Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. doi: 10.1037/a0030831
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, R. J., Wendell, C. R., Giggey, P. P., Katzel, L. I., Lefkowitz, D. M., Siegel, E. L., & Waldstein, S. R. (2013). Psychometric limitations of the Mini-Mental State Examination among nondemented older adults: An evaluation of neurocognitive and magnetic resonance imaging correlates. Experimental Aging Research, 39, 382–397. doi: 10.1080/0361073X.2013.808109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, J. T., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011). Age-related differences in profiles of mood-change trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 47, 318–330. doi: 10.1037/a0021023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streubel, B., & Kunzmann, U. (2011). Age differences in emotional reactions: Arousal and age-relevance count. Psychology and Aging, 26, 966–978. doi: 10.1037/a0023424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, R. A. (2011). Emotion and emotion regulation: Two sides of the developing coin. Emotion Review, 3(1), 53–61.
   Google Scholar
• Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory data analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Võ, M. L. H., Conrad, M., Kuchinke, L., Urton, K., Hofmann, M. J., & Jacobs, A. M. (2009). The Berlin Affective Word List Reloaded (BAWL–R). Behavior Research Methods, 41, 534–538. doi: 10.3758/brm.41.2.534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujovic, L., Opitz, P. C., Birk, J. L., & Urry, H. L. (2014). Cut! That’s a wrap: Regulating negative emotion by ending emotion-eliciting situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, A. J., Sayette, M. A., Franken, I. H. A., & Schwartz, J. E. (2005). Generalizability of carry-over effects in the emotional Stroop task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 715–732. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wentura, D., Rothermund, K., & Bak, P. (2000). Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of approach- and avoidance-related social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1024–1037. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, J. M. G., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, L. E., Bargh, J. A., Nocera, C. C., & Gray, J. R. (2009). The unconscious regulation of emotion: Nonconscious reappraisal goals modulate emotional reactivity. Emotion, 9, 847–854. doi: 10.1037/a0017745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrosch, C., Heckhausen, J., & Lachman, M. E. (2000). Primary and secondary control strategies for managing health and financial stress across adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 15, 387–399. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wühr, P., & Frings, C. (2008). A case for inhibition: Visual attention suppresses the processing of irrelevant objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 116–130. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.137.1.116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wurm, L. H., Labouvie-Vief, G., Aycock, J., Rebucal, K. A., & Koch, H. E. (2004). Performance in auditory and visual emotional Stroop tasks: A comparison of older and younger adults. Psychology and Aging, 19, 523–535. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar