Publication Cover
Experimental Aging Research
An International Journal Devoted to the Scientific Study of the Aging Process
Volume 44, 2018 - Issue 1
693
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Does the Cognitive Reflection Test actually capture heuristic versus analytic reasoning styles in older adults?

, &
Pages 18-34 | Received 21 Feb 2016, Accepted 13 Nov 2016, Published online: 22 Nov 2017

References

  • Allaire, J. C. (2012). Everyday cognition. In S. K. Whitbourne & M. J. Sliwinski (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of adulthood and aging (pp. 190–207). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., & Eyre, R. N. (2007). Overcoming intuition: Metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 569–576. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.569
  • Ariel, R., Price, J., & Hertzog, C. (2015). Age-related associative memory deficits in value-based remembering: The contribution of agenda- based regulation and strategy use. Psychology and Aging, 30, 795–808. doi: 10.1037/a0039818
  • Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366–380. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.4.366
  • Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (2008). The fascination of wisdom: Its nature, ontogeny, and function. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 56–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x
  • Besedes, T., Deck, C., Sarangi, S., & Shor, M. (2012). Decision making strategies and performance among seniors. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 81, 524–533. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2011.07.016
  • Blanchard-Fields, F. (2009). Flexible and adaptive socio-emotional problem solving in adult development and aging. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27, 539–550.
  • Blanchard-Fields, F., Hertzog, C., Stein, R., & Pak, R. (2001). Beyond a stereotyped view of older adults’ traditional family values. Psychology and Aging, 16, 483–496. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.16.3.483
  • Bleske-Rechek, A., & Browne, K. (2014). Trends in GRE scores and graduate enrollments by gender and ethnicity. Intelligence, 46, 25–34. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.005
  • Boonen, A. J. H., van Wesel, F., Jolles, J., & van der Schoot, M. (2014). The role of visual representation type, spatial ability, and reading comprehension in word problem solving: An item-level analysis in elementary school children. International Journal of Educational Research, 68, 15–26. doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2014.08.001
  • Bruine De Bruin, W., McNair, S. J., Taylor, A. L., Summers, B., & Strough, J. (2015). “Thinking about numbers is not my kind of fun”: Need for cognition mediates age differences in numeracy performance. Medical Decision Making, 35, 22–26. doi: 10.1177/0272989X14542485
  • Bruine De Bruin, W., Parker, A. M., & Fischoff, B. (2012). Explaining adult age differences in decision making competence. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25, 352–360. doi: 10.1002/bdm712
  • Campitelli, G. J., & Gerrans, P. (2013). Does the Cognitive Reflection Test measure cognitive reflection? A mathematical modeling approach. Memory and Cognition, 42, 434–447. doi: 10.3758/s13421-013-0367-9
  • Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: a survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev. ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Cokely, E. T., Galesic, M., Schulz, E., Ghazal, S., & Garcia-Retamero, R. (2012). Measuring risk literacy: The Berlin Numeracy Test. Judgment and Decision Making, 7, 25–47.
  • Cokely, E. T., & Kelley, C. M. (2009). Cognitive abilities and superior decision making under risk: A protocol analysis and process model evaluation. Judgment and Decision Making, 4, 20–33.
  • Cokely, E. T., Parpart, P., & Schooler, L. J. (2009). On the link between cognitive control and heuristic processes. In N. Taatgen & H. Van Rijn (Eds.), Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2926–2931). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.
  • Del Missier, F., Mäntylä, T., Hansson, P., Bruine De Bruin, W., Parker, A. M., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2013). The multifold relationship between memory and decision making: An individual differences study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39, 1344–1364. doi: 10.1037/a0032379
  • Delaney, R., Strough, J., Parker, A. M., & Bruine De Bruin, W. (2015). Variations in decision making profiles by age and gender: A cluster-analytic approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 85, 19–24. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.034
  • Der, G., Allerhand, M., Starr, J. M., Hofer, S. M., & Deary, I. (2010). Age-related changes in memory and fluid intelligence in a sample of healthy old people. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 17, 55–70. doi: 10.1080/13825580903009071
  • Dickman, S. J., & Meyer, D. E. (1988). Impulsivity and speed-accuracy tradeoffs in information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 274–290. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.2.274
  • Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 390–405. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.390
  • Evans, J. S. B. T. (2009). How many dual-process theories do we need: One, two or many?. In J. St. B. T. Evans & K. Frankis (Eds.), In two minds: Dual process and beyond (pp. 31–54). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Evans, J. S. B. T., & Over, D. E. (1996). Rationality in the section task: Epistemic utility versus uncertainty reduction. Psychological Review, 103, 356–363. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.356
  • Finucane, M. L., & Gullion, C. M. (2010). Developing a tool for measuring the decision-making competence of older adults. Psychology and Aging, 25, 271–288. doi: 10.1037/a0019106
  • Fisk, J. E. (2005). Age and probabilistic reasoning: Biases in conjunctive, disjunctive and Bayesian judgments in early and late adulthood. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 18, 55–82. doi: 10.1002/bdm.488
  • Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. (2002). Syllogistic reasoning and cognitive aging. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Experimental Psychology, 55, 1273–1293. doi: 10.1080/02724980244000107
  • Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive reflection and decision making. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 25–42. doi: 10.1257/089533005775196732
  • Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & the ABC Research Group (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Heron, A., & Chown, S. M. (1967). Age and function. London, UK: Churchill.
  • Hershey, D. A., Walsh, D. A., Read, S. J., & Chulef, A. S. (1990). The effects of expertise on financial problem solving: Evidence for goal-directed, problem-solving scripts. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 46, 77–101. doi: 10.1016/0749-5978(90)90023-3
  • Hertzog, C. (1989). The influence of cognitive slowing on age differences in intelligence. Developmental Psychology, 25, 636–651. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.25.4.636
  • Hertzog, C. (2016). Aging and metacognitive control. In J. Dunlosky & S. K. Tauber (Eds), Oxford handbook of metacognition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Hertzog, C., Hale, C., & Krepps, R. D. (2015, August). Development of a quantitative measure of abductive reasoning quality. Georgia Institute of Technology Final Technical Report, Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) Strengthening Human Adaptive Reasoning and Problem-solving (SHARP) Program.
  • Hess, T. M. (2001). Ageing-related influences on personal need for structure. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 482–490. doi: 10.1080/01650250042000429
  • Hess, T. M. (2014). Selective engagement of cognitive resources: Motivational influences on older adults’ cognitive functioning. Perspective on Psychological Science, 9, 388–407. doi: 10.1177/1745691614527465
  • Hess, T. M., & Queen, T. L. (2014). Aging influences on judgments and decision processes: Interactions between ability and experience. In P. Verhaeghen & C. Hertzog (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of emotion, social cognition, and problem solving in adulthood (pp. 238–255). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Horhota, M., Mienaltowski, A., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2012). If only I had taken my usual route…: Age-related differences in counterfactual thinking. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 19, 339–361. doi: 10.1080/13825585.2011.615904
  • Horn, J. L. (1985). Remodeling old models of intelligence. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence: Theories, measurements, and applications (pp. 267–300). New York: Wiley.
  • Jokela, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Ferrie, J. N., Gimeno, D., et al. (2010). The association of cognitive performance with mental health and physical functioning strengthens with age: The Whitehall II cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 40, 837–845. doi: 10.1017/S003329170990124
  • Juanchich, M., Dewberry, C., Sirota, M., & Narendran, S. (2016). Cognitive Reflection Test reflects real-life decision outcomes, but not over and above personality and decision-making styles. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 29, 52–59. doi: 10.1002/bdm.1875
  • Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast and slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Strous, & Giroux.
  • Keith, T. Z., Reynolds, M. R., Patel, P. G., & Ridley, K. P. (2008). Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 6 to 59: Evidence from the Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 36, 502–525. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2007.11.001
  • Kozhevnikov, M., Evans, C., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2014). Cognitive style as environmentally sensitive individual differences in cognition: A modern synthesis and applications in education, business, and management. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15, 3–33. doi: 10.1177/1529100614525555
  • Labouvie, E. W. (1980). Equivalence versus identity of psychological measures and constructs. In L. W. Poon (Ed.), Aging in the 1980’s: Psychological Issues (pp. 493–502). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Låg, T., Bauger, L., Lindberg, M., & Friborg, O. (2013). The role of numeracy and intelligence in health-risk estimation and medical data interpretation. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 27, 95–108. doi: 10.1002/bdm.1788
  • Liberali, J. M., Reyna, V. F., Furlan, S., Stein, L. M., & Pardo, S. T. (2011). Individual differences in numeracy and cognitive reflection, with implications for biases and fallacies in probability judgment. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25, 361–381. doi: 10.1002/bdm.752
  • Livecode Ltd. (2015). Livecode [computer software]. Edinburgh, UK: Livecode Ltd.
  • McArdle, J. J., Ferrer-Caja, E., Hamagami, F., & Woodcock, R. W. (2002). Comparative longitudinal structural analyses of the growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span. Developmental Psychology, 38, 115–142.
  • Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2014). The new science of cognitive sex differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 37–45. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011
  • Pachur, T., Mata, R., & Schooler, L. J. (2009). Cognitive aging and the adaptive use of recognition in decision making. Psychology and Aging, 24, 901–915. doi: 10.1037/a0017211
  • Pansky, A., Goldsmith, M., Koriat, A., & Pearlman-Avnion, S. (2009). Memory accuracy in old age: Cognitive, metacognitive, and neurocognitive determinants. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21, 303–329. doi: 10.1080/09541440802281183
  • Park, D. C., Hertzog, C., Leventhal, H., Morrell, R. W., Leventhal, E., Birchmore, D., … Bennett, J. (1999). Medication adherence in rheumatoid arthritis patients: Older is wiser. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47, 172–183. doi: 10.1111/jgs.1999.47.issue-2
  • Pennycook, G., Cheyne, J. A., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2015). Is the cognitive reflection test a measure of both reflection and intuition?. Behavioral Research Methods. 48, 341–348. doi: 10.3758/s13428-015-0576-1
  • Peters, E., Hess, T. M., Auman, C., & Västfjäll, D. (2007). Adult age differences in dual information processes and their influence on judgments and decisions: A review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 1–23. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00025.x
  • Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015). One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn effect. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 282–306. doi: 10.1177/1745691615577701
  • Primi, C., Morsanyi, K., Chiesi, F., Donati, M. A., & Hamilton, J. (2015). The development and testing of a new version of the Cognitive Reflection Test applying item response theory. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 29, 453–469. doi: 10.1002/bdm.1883
  • Raven, J. C., & Court, J. H. (1998). Raven’s Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary scales. Oxford, UK: Oxford Psychologists Press.
  • Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Influence of processing speed on adult age differences in working memory. Acta Psychologica, 79, 155–170. doi: 10.1016/0001-6918(92)90030-H
  • Salthouse, T. A. (1998). Independence of age-related influences on cognitive abilities across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 34, 851–864. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.34.5.851
  • Salthouse, T. A., Mitchell, D. R. D., Skorvronek, E., & Babcock, R. L. (1989). Effects of adult age and working memory on reasoning and spatial abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 507–516.
  • Schaie, K. W. (2012). Developmental influences on adult intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Schnitzspahn, K. M., Ihle, A., Henry, J. D., Rendell, P. D., & Kliegel, M. (2011). The age-prospective memory-paradox. International Psychogeriatrics, 23, 583–592. doi: 10.1017/S1041610210001651
  • Sinayev, A., & Peters, E. (2015). Cognitive reflection vs. calculation in decision making. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 532. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00532
  • St. B. T., E. J., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223–241. doi: 10.1177/1745691612460685
  • Stanovich, K. E. (2009). What intelligence tests miss: The psychology of rational thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • Stanovich, K. E. (2011). Rationality and the reflective mind. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1993). Where does knowledge come from? Specific associations between print exposure and information acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 211–229. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.2.211
  • Staudinger, U. M., & Glück, J. (2011). Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 215–241. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659
  • Strough, J., & Keener, E. J. (2014). Goals and strategies for solving interpersonal everyday problems across the lifespan. In P. Verhaeghen & C. Hertzog (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of emotion, social cognition, and problem solving in adulthood (pp. 190–205). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Stupple, E. J. N., Gale, M. & Richmond, C. (2013) Working Memory, Cognitive Miserliness and Logic as Predictors of Performance on the Cognitive Reflection Test In M. Knauff, M. Pauen, N. Sebanz, & I. Wachsmuth (Eds.), Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1396–1401). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.
  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2011). The cognitive reflection test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks. Memory & Cognition, 39, 1275–1289. doi: 10.3758/s13421-011-0104-1
  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Assessing miserly information processing: An expansion of the Cognitive Reflection Test. Thinking and Reasoning, 20, 147–168. doi: 10.1080/13546783.2013.844729
  • Viskontas, I. V., Morrison, R. G., Holyoak, K. J., Hummel, J. E., & Knowlton, B. J. (2004). Relational integration, inhibition and analogical reasoning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 19, 581–591. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.19.4.581
  • Zhang, L.-F., & Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The nature of intellectual styles. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.