Examining the Construct Validity of Enacted Support: A Multitrait–Multimethod Analysis of Three Perspectives for Judging Immediacy and Listening Behaviors

References

• Afifi, T., Afifi, W., Merrill, A. F., Denes, A., & Davis, S. (2013). “You need to stop talking about this!”: Verbal rumination and the costs of social support. Human Communication Research, 39, 395–421. doi:10.1111/hcre.12012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, R. B., & Ebbesen, E. B. (1981). Cognitive processes in person perception: Retrieval of personality trait and behavioral information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 17(2), 119–141. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(81)90010-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida, D. M. (2005). Resilience and vulnerability to daily stressors assessed via diary methods. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(2), 64–68. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00336.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anders, S. L., & Tucker, J. S. (2000). Adult attachment style, interpersonal communication competence, and social support. Personal Relationships, 7, 379–389. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00023.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen, J. F. (1979). Teacher immediacy as a predicator of teaching effectiveness. Communication Yearbook, 3, 545–559.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen, J. F., Andersen, P. A., & Jensen, A. D. (1979). The measurement of nonverbal immediacy. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 7, 153–180. doi:10.1080/00909887909365204
   Google Scholar
• Andersen, P. A., & Andersen, J. F. (2005). Measurements of perceived nonverbal immediacy. In V. L. Manusov (Ed.), The sourcebook of nonverbal measures: Going beyond words (pp. 113–126). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Bank, L., Dishion, T. J., Skinner, M., & Patterson, G. R. (1990). Method variance in structural equation modeling: Living with “glop”. In G. R. Patterson (Ed.), Depression and aggression in family interaction (pp. 247–279). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Barrera Jr, M., & Baca, L. M. (1990). Recipient reactions to social support: Contributions of enacted support, conflicted support, and network orientation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 541–551. doi:10.1177/0265407590074010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernieri, F. J., & Gillis, J. S. (2001). Judging rapport: Employing Brunswick's lens model to study interpersonal sensitivity. In J. A. Hall & F. J. Bernieri (Eds.), Interpersonal sensitivity: Theory and measurement (pp. 67–88). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D. (2011). The Active-Empathic Listening Scale (AELS): Conceptualization and evidence of validity within the interpersonal domain. Communication Quarterly, 59, 277–295. doi: 10.1080/01463373.2011.583495
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., & Burleson, B. R. (2008). Explaining variations in the effects of supportive messages: A dual-process framework. Communication Yearbook, 32, 355–398.
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., Gearhart, C. C., Denham, J. P., & Vickery, A. J. (2013). The temporal stability and situational contingency of active-empathic listening. Western Journal of Communication, 77(2), 113–138. doi:10.1080/10570314.2012.656216
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The nature of supportive listening II: The role of verbal person centeredness and nonverbal immediacy. Western Journal of Communication, 76, 250–269. doi:10.1080/10570314.2011.651255
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., St. Cyr, K., Pence, M., Rold, M., & Honeycutt, J. (2012). Listening competence in initial interactions I: Distinguishing between what listening is and what listeners do. International Journal of Listening, 26(1), 1–28. doi:10.1080/10904018.2012.639645
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., Vickery, A. J., Cannava, K., & Jones, S. M. (in press). The role of “active listening” in informal helping conversations: Impact on perceptions of listener helpfulness, sensitvity, and supportiveness and discloser emotional improvement. Western Journal of Communication.
   Google Scholar
• Bodie, G. D., Vickery, A. J., & Gearhart, C. C. (2013). The nature of supportive listening I: Exploring the relation between supportive listeners and supportive people. International Journal of Listening, 27(1), 39–49. doi:10.1080/10904018.2013.732408
   Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R. (1983). Social cognition, empathic motivation, and adults' comforting strategies. Human Communication Research, 10, 295–304. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1983.tb00019.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R. (2003). Emotional support skill. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 551–594). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R. (2007). What's most important about communication? About communication and social support. Communication Currents, 2.
   Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R., & Goldsmith, D. J. (1998). How the comforting process works: Alleviating emotional distress through conversationally induced reappraisals. In P. A. Andersen & L. K. Guerrero (Eds.), Handbook of communication and emotion: Research, theory, applications, and contexts (pp. 245–280). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burleson, B. R., & Samter, W. (1985). Individual differences in the perception of comforting messages: An exploratory investigation. Central States Speech Journal, 36(1–2), 39–50. doi:10.1080/10510978509363198
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the muli-trait multi-method matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–301. doi:10.1037/h0046016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappella, J. N., & Street, R. L., Jr. (1989). Message effects: Theory and research on mental models of messages. In J. J. Bradac (Ed.), Message effects in communication science (pp. 24–51). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, K. D., & Herdman, A. O. (2011). Understanding the impact of convergent validity on research results. Organizational Research Methods, 15, 17–32. doi:10.1177/1094428110392383
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassel, J. (1976). The contribution of the social environment to host resistance. American Journal of Epidemiology, 104, 107–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudoir, S. R., Fisher, J. D., & Simoni, J. M. (2011). Understanding HIV disclosure: A review and application of the disclosure process model. Social Science & Medicine, 72, 1618–1629. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Y., & Feeley, T. H. (2012). Enacted support and well-being: A test of the mediating role of perceived control. Communication Studies, 63, 608–625. doi:10.1080/10510974.2012.674619
   Google Scholar
• Collins, N. L., & Feeney, B. C. (2000). A safe haven: An attachment theory perspective on support-seeking and caregiving in adult romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1053–1073. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302. doi:10.1037/h0040957
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drollinger, T., Comer, L. B., & Warrington, P. T. (2006). Development and validation of the active empathetic listening scale. Psychology and Marketing, 23, 161–180. doi:10.1002/mar.20105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, R., Bohart, A. C., Watson, J. C., & Greenberg, L. S. (2011). Empathy. Psychotherapy, 48(1), 43–49. doi:10.1037/a0022187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fassaert, T., van Dulmen, S., Schellevis, F., & Bensing, J. (2007). Active listening in medical consultations: Development of the active listening observation scale. Patient Education and Counseling, 68, 258–264. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2007.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feeley, T. H. (2002). Comment on halo effects in rating and evaluation research. Human Communication Research, 28, 578–586. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00825.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feeney, B. C., Cassidy, J., Lemay, Jr, E. P., & Ramos-Marcuse, F. (2009). Affiliation with new peer acquaintances during two initial social support interactions. Personal Relationships, 16, 489–506. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01236.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2001). Predictors of caregiving in adult intimate relationships: An attachment theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 972–994. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd, K. (2014). Empathic listening as an expression of interpersonal affection. International Journal of Listening, 28(1), 1–12. doi:10.1080/10904018.2014.861293
   Google Scholar
• Floyd, K., & Morman, M. T. (1998). The measurement of affectionate communication. Communication Quarterly, 46, 144–162. doi:10.1080/01463379809370092
   Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Love 2.0: How our supreme emotion affects everything we feel, think, do, and become. New York, NY: Hudson.
   Google Scholar
• Funder, D. C. (2006). Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons, situations and behaviors. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(1), 21–34. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gable, S. L., Gosnell, C. L., Maisel, N. C., & Strachman, A. (2012). Safely testing the alarm: Close others' responses to personal positive events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 963–981. doi:10.1037/a0029488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gearhart, C. C., & Bodie, G. D. (2011). Active-empathic listening as a general social skill: Evidence from bivariate and canonical correlations. Communication Reports, 24(2), 86–98. doi:10.1080/08934215.2011.610731
   Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, D. J. (2004). Communicating social support. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, D. J., McDermott, V. M., & Alexander, S. C. (2000). Helpful, supportive, and sensitive: Measuring the evaluation of enacted support in personal relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 369–391. doi:10.1177/0265407500173004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• High, A. C., & Dillard, J. P. (2012). A review and meta-analysis of person-centered messages and social support outcomes. Communication Studies, 63(1), 99–118. doi:10.1080/10510974.2011.598208
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S. M. (2011). Supportive listening. International Journal of Listening, 25(1–2), 85–103. doi:10.1080/10904018.2011.536475
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S. M., & Guerrero, L. K. (2001). Nonverbal immediacy and verbal person-centeredness in the emotional support process. Human Communication Research, 27, 567–596. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00793.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, S. M., & Wirtz, J. G. (2006). How does the comforting process work?: An empirical test of an appraisal-based model of comforting. Human Communication Research, 32, 217–243. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2006.00274.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, S. M., & Wirtz, J. G. (2007). “Sad Monkey See, Monkey Do”: Nonverbal matching in emotional support encounters. Communication Studies, 58(1), 71–86. doi:10.1080/10510970601168731
   Google Scholar
• Kenny, D. A., & Acitelli, L. K. (2001). Accuracy and bias in the perception of the partner in a close relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 439–448. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenny, D. A., Kaniskan, B., & McCoach, D. B. (2011). The performance of RMSEA in models with small degrees of freedom. University of Connecticut, Unpublished paper.
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Kotowski, M. R., Levine, T. R., Baker, C. R., & Bolt, J. M. (2009). A multitrait-multimethod assessment of the verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness scales. Communication Monographs, 76, 443–462. doi:10.1080/03637750903300247
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakey, B., & Orehek, E. (2011). Relational regulation theory: A new approach to explain the link between perceived social support and mental health. Psychological Review, 118, 482–495 doi:10.1037/a0023477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakey, B., Orehek, E., Hain, K. L., & VanVleet, M. (2009). Enacted support's links to negative affect and perceived support are more consistent with theory when social influences are isolated from trait influences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 132–142. doi:10.1177/0146167209349375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakey, B., Ross, L. T., Butler, C., & Bentley, K. (1996). Making social support judgments: The role of similarity and conscientiousness. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 15, 283–304. doi:10.1521/jscp.1996.15.3.283
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, T. R., Kotowski, M. R., Beatty, M. J., & Van Kelegom, M. J. (2012). A meta-analysis of trait-behavior correlations in argumentativeness and verbal aggression. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 31(1), 95–111. doi:10.1177/0261927X11425037
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacGeorge, E. L., Feng, B., & Burleson, B. R. (2011). Supportive communication. In M. L. Knapp & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (4th ed., pp. 317–354). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• MacGeorge, E. L., Feng, B., & Thompson, E. R. (2008). “Good” and “bad” advice: How to advise more effectively. In M. T. Motley (Ed.), Studies in applied interpersonal communication (pp. 145-164). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Malle, B. F. (2006). The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 895–919. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.895
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCroskey, J. C., Richmond, V. P., & Bennett, V. E. (2006). The relationships of student end-of-class motivation with teacher communication behaviors and instructional outcomes. Communication Education, 55, 403–414. doi:10.1080/03634520600702562
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531–544. doi:10.1177/014920638601200408
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priem, J. S., Solomon, D. H., & Steuber, K. R. (2009). Accuracy and bias in perceptions of emotionally supportive communication in marriage. Personal Relationships, 16, 531–552. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01238.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis, H. T. (2009). Relationships are situations, and situations involve relationships. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 266. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, H. A., Simmering, M. J., & Sturman, M. C. (2009). A tale of three perspectives examining post hoc statistical techniques for detection and correction of common method variance. Organizational Research Methods, 12, 762–800. doi:10.1177/1094428109332834
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Johnson, A. D. (2003). Development of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (NIS): Measures of self- and other-perceived nonverbal immediacy. Communication Quarterly, 51, 504–517. doi:10.1080/01463370309370170
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, R. (1987). Judgment studies: Design, analysis, and meta-analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, R. (2005). Conducting judgment studies: Some methodological issues. In J. A. Harrigan, R. Rosenthal, & K. R. Scherer (Eds.), The new handbook of methods in nonverbal behavior research (pp. 199–234). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sarason, I. G., & Sarason, B. R. (2009). Social support [special issue]. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26(1). Retrieved from http://spr.sagepub.com/content/26/1.toc
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smythe, M.-J., & Hess, J. A. (2005). Are student self-reports a valid method for measuring teacher nonverbal immediacy? Communication Education, 54, 170–179. doi:10.1080/03634520500213389
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurement of association between two things. American Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 72–101. doi:10.2307/1412159
   Google Scholar
• Street, R. L. (1985). Participant-observer differences in speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4(2), 125–130. doi:10.1177/0261927X8500400204
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
   Google Scholar
• Tickle-Degnen, L., & Rosenthal, R. (1992). Nonverbal aspects of therapeutic rapport. In R. S. Feldman (Ed.), Applications of nonverbal behavioral theories and research (pp. 143–164). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Trees, A. R. (2000). Nonverbal communication and the support process: Interactional sensitivity in interactions between mothers and young adult children. Communication Monographs, 67, 239–261. doi:10.1080/03637750009376509
   Google Scholar
• Uchino, B. N., Carlisle, M., Birmingham, W., & Vaughn, A. A. (2011). Social support and the reactivity hypothesis: Conceptual issues in examining the efficacy of received support during acute psychological stress. Biological Psychology, 86(2), 137–142. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uno, D., Uchino, B. N., & Smith, T. W. (2002). Relationship quality moderates the effect of social support given by close friends on cardiovascular reactivity in women. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 9, 243–262. doi:10.1207/S15327558IJBM0903_06
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weger Jr, H. W., Castle, G. R., & Emmett, M. C. (2010). Active listening in peer interviews: The influence of message paraphrasing on perceptions of listening skill. International Journal of Listening, 24(1), 34–49. doi:10.1080/10904010903466311
   Google Scholar
• Weiner, A. S. B., & Hannum, J. W. (2013). Differences in the quantity of social support between geographically close and long-distance friendships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30, 662–672. doi:10.1177/0265407512465997
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar