Crossing the color line: An examination of mediators and a social media intervention for racial bias in selective exposure to movies

References

• Aaker, J. A., Brumbaugh, A. M., & Grier, S. A. (2000). Non-target market effects and viewer distinctiveness: The impact of target marketing on attitudes. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9, 127–140. doi: 10.1207/S15327663JCP0903_1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrams, J. R., & Giles, H. (2007). Ethnic identity gratifications selection and avoidance by African Americans: A group vitality and social identity gratifications perspective. Media Psychology, 9, 115–134. doi: 10.1080/15213260709336805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, G. (2001). Reaching the silver screen. Black Enterprise. Retrieved from http://www.blackenterprise.com/mag/reaching-the-silver-screen/
   Google Scholar
• Appiah, O. (2001). Ethnic identification on adolescents’ evaluations of advertisements. Journal of Advertising Research, 41(5), 7–22. doi: 10.2501/JAR-41-5-7-22
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appiah, O. (2002). Black and White viewers’ perception and recall of occupational characters on television. Journal of Communication, 52, 776–793. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2002.tb02573.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appiah, O. (2007). The effectiveness of “typical-user” testimonial advertisements on Black and White browsers’’ evaluations of products on commercial Websites: Do they really work? Journal of Advertising Research, 47(1), 14–27. doi: 10.2501/S0021849907070031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appiah, O. (2018). Cultural voyeurism: A new framework for understanding race, ethnicity, and mediated intergroup interaction. Journal of Communication, 68, 233–242. doi: 10.1093/joc/jqx021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernazzani, S. (2017, February 24). What marketers can learn from the success of moonlight. Thinkgrowth.org. Retrieved from https://thinkgrowth.org/what-marketers-can-learn-from-the-success-of-moonlight-ce05a1fc45b9
   Google Scholar
• Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 27–52. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420030103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumler, J. G. (1979). The role of theory in uses and gratifications studies. Communication Research, 6, 9–36. doi: 10.1177/009365027900600102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• boyd, d. m., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, 210–230. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429–444. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s mechanical turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5. doi: 10.1177/1745691610393980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4, 245–264. doi: 10.1207/S15327825MCS0403_01
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (2006). Audience identification with media characters. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 183–197). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., & Ribak, R. (2003). Sex differences in pleasure from television texts: The case of Ally McBeal. Women’s Studies in Communication, 26, 118–134. doi: 10.1080/07491409.2003.10162454
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, B. (1999). The relevancy of gender identity in spectators’ interpretations of Thelma & Louise. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 16, 20–41. doi: 10.1080/15295039909367070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dates, J. (1980). Race, racial-attitudes and adolescent perceptions of black television characters. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 24, 549–560. doi: 10.1080/08838158009364007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyal, K., & Rubin, A. M. (2003). Viewer aggression and homophily, identification, and parasocial relationships with television characters. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47, 77–98. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4701_5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour: An instruction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, J. (1989). Television culture. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Frutkin, A. (1998). White like me: A combination of economics, viewing patterns and institutional racism conspires to keep black dramas off network TV. Mediaweek, 8, 28–38.
   Google Scholar
• Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ghahremani, T. (2013, April 1). 25 minority characters that Hollywood whitewashed. Retrieved from http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/03/25-minority-characters-that-hollywood-whitewashed/
   Google Scholar
• Grier, S. A., Brumbaugh, A. M., & Thornton, C. G. (2006). Crossover dreams: Consumer responses to ethnic-oriented products. Journal of Marketing, 70, 35–51. doi: 10.1509/jmkg.70.2.35
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harwood, J. (1997). Viewing age: Lifespan identity and television viewing choices. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 41, 203–213. doi: 10.1080/08838159709364401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henning-Thurau, T., Wiertz, C., & Feldhaus, F. (2015). Does Twitter matter? The impact of microblogging word of mouth on consumers’ adoption of new movies. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 375–394. doi: 10.1007/s11747-014-0388-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hewstone, M., Hantzi, A., & Johnston, L. (1991). Social categorization and person memory: The pervasiveness of race as an organizing principle. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 517–528. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420210606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, L. P., & Proffitt, J. M. (2016). Courting minority commodity audiences: Bounce TV in the age of media conglomeration. In J. Smith & B. K. Thakore (Eds.), Race and contention in twenty-first century U.S. media (pp. 26–40). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Iacobucci, D. (2008). Mediation analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Jaret, C., & Reitzes, D. C. (1999). The importance of racial-ethnic identity and social setting for Blacks, Whites, and multiracials. Sociological Perspectives, 42, 711–737. doi: 10.2307/1389581
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karniouchina, E. V. (2011). Impact of star and movie buzz on motion picture distribution and box office revenue. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 28, 62–74. doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2010.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S., Park, N., & Park, S. (2013). Exploring the effects of online word of mouth and expert reviews on theatrical movies’ box office success. Journal of Media Economics, 26, 98–114. doi: 10.1080/08997764.2013.785551
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimmel, A. J., & Kitchen, P. J. (2014). Introduction: Word of mouth and social media. Journal of Marketing Communications, 20, 2–4. doi: 10.1080/13527266.2013.865868
   Google Scholar
• Knobloch, S., Callison, C., Chen, L., Fritzsche, A., & Zillmann, D. (2005). Children’s sex-stereotyped self-socialization through selective exposure to entertainment fare: Cross cultural experiments in Germany, China, and the United States. Journal of Communication, 55, 122–138. doi:10.1093/joc/55.1.122 doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02662.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Appiah, O., & Alter, S. (2008). News selection patterns as a function of race: The discerning minority and the indiscriminating majority. Media Psychology, 11, 400–417. doi: 10.1080/15213260802178542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C. (2010, May 22). Hollywood whitewash? Airbender and Prince of Persia anger fans with ethnic casting. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://latimes.com
   Google Scholar
• Lee, M. (2011, March 19). Jennifer Lawrence cast as Katniss in “The Hunger Games” [Web log entry]. Retrieved from http://www.racebending.com/v4/featured/jennifer-lawrence-cast-as-katniss-in-the-hunger-games/
   Google Scholar
• Mastro, D. E. (2003). A social identity approach to understanding the impact of television messages. Communication Monographs, 70, 98–113. doi: 10.1080/0363775032000133764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClintock, P. (2018, February 18). Disney’s ‘Black Panther’ playbook: A peek at the marketing of a phenomenon. The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved from https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/black-panther-how-disney-created-a-phenomenon-1086820
   Google Scholar
• Moy, E. (2010, June 23). Hollywood whitewashing debate rages over Last Airbender and Prince of Persia. Los Angeles Examiner. Retrieved from http://www.examiner.com
   Google Scholar
• Obar, J. A., & Wildman, S. (2015). Social media definition and the governance challenge: An introduction to the special issue. Telecommunications Policy, 39, 745–750. doi: 10.1016/j.telpol.2015.07.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obenson, T. (2017, April 20). Tyler Perry has a White audience problem he’d like to solve. Shadow and Act. Retrieved from https://shadowandact.com/tyler-perrys-talks-his-white-audience-problem/
   Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499–514. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosario, A. B., Sotgiu, F., De Valck, K., & Bijmolt, T. H. A. (2016). The effect of electronic word of mouth on sales: A meta-analytic review of platform, product, and metric factors. Journal of Marketing Research, 53, 297–318. doi: 10.1509/jmr.14.0380
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roschk, H., & Große, S. (2013). Talking about films: Word-of-mouth behavior and the network success determinants of motion pictures. Journal of Promotion Management, 19, 299–316. doi: 10.1080/10496491.2013.770810
   Google Scholar
• Samuels, A. (2008, December 8). The gospel of Will Smith. Newsweek, pp. 66–67. Retrieved from www.newsweek.com.
   Google Scholar
• Samuels, A., & Leland, J. (1999, April 5). They’ve got next: Today’s young Black pack learns to stand up against the same old Hollywood hang-ups – and the new box-office jitters caused by “Beloved.” Newsweek, pp. 58–60. Retrieved from www.newsweek.com.
   Google Scholar
• Seewood, A. (2014, January 17). Why White people don’t like Black movies. IndieWire. Retrieved from http://www.indiewire.com/2014/01/why-white-people-dont-like-black-movies-162548/
   Google Scholar
• Sheeran, P. (2002). Intention-behaviour relations: A conceptual and empirical review. European Review of Social Psychology, 12, 1–36. doi: 10.1080/14792772143000003
   Google Scholar
• Slater, M. D., Johnson, B. K., Cohen, J., Comello, M. L. G., & Ewoldsen, D. R. (2014). Temporarily expanding the boundaries of the self: Motivations for entering the story world and implications for narrative effects. Journal of Communication, 64, 439–455. doi: 10.1111/jcom.12100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), Social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Chicago, IL: Nelson.
   Google Scholar
• Ting-Toomey, S., Yee-Jung, K. K., Shapiro, R. B., Garcia, W., Wright, T. J., & Oetzel, J. G. (2000). Ethnic/cultural identity salience and conflict styles in four US ethnic groups. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24, 47–81. doi: 10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00023-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tokunaga, R. S. (2011). Social networking site or social surveillance site? Understanding the use of interpersonal electronic surveillance in romantic relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 705–713. doi:10.1016/j/chb.2010.08.014 doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.08.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treem, J., & Leonardi, P. (2012). Social media use in organizations: Exploring the affordances of visibility, editability, persistence, and association. In C. T. Salmon (Ed.), Communication yearbook (Vol. 36, pp. 143–189). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Trepte, S. (2006). Social identity theory. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 255–271). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, J. R. (1993). Interpersonal and psychological predictors of parasocial interaction with different television performers. Communication Quarterly, 41, 443–453. doi: 10.1080/01463379309369904
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, A. J. (2011). The role of actors’ race in White audiences’ selective exposure to movies. Journal of Communication, 61, 369–385. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01544.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whittler, T. E. (1989). Viewers’ processing of actor’s race and message claims in advertising stimuli. Psychology & Marketing, 6, 287–309. doi: 10.1002/mar.4220060405
   Google Scholar
• Yong, L. (2006). Word of mouth for movies: Its dynamics and impact on box office revenue. Journal of Marketing, 70, 74–89. doi:10.1509/jmkg.70.3.74 doi: 10.1509/jmkg.70.3.074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeitchik, S. (2018, February 18). ‘Black Panther’ just broke box-office records. But some worry it’ll be the exception, not the rule. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/business/wp/2018/02/16/black-panther-will-break-box-office-records-but-could-it-change-the-movie-business/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.124d7129526d
   Google Scholar