Extending the fluency principle: Factors that increase listeners’ processing fluency positively bias their language attitudes

References

• Adank, P., Evans, B. G., Stuart-Smith, J., & Scott, S. K. (2009). Comprehension of familiar and unfamiliar native accents under adverse listening conditions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35, 520–529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer D. M. (2009). Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 219–235. doi: 10.1177/1088868309341564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cargile, A. C. (1997). Attitudes toward Chinese-accented speech. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16, 434–443. doi: 10.1177/0261927X970164004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clore, G. L., & Huntsinger, J. R. (2007). How emotions inform judgment and regulate thought. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 393–399. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristia, A., Seidl, A., Vaughn, C., Schmale, R., Bradlow, A., & Floccia, C. (2012). Linguistic processing of accented speech across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1–15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio, J. F., & Gluszek, A. (2012). Accent, nonverbal behavior, and intergroup bias. In H. Giles (Ed.), The handbook of intergroup communication (pp. 87–99). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Dragojevic, M. (2018). Language attitudes. In H. Giles & J. Harwood (Eds.), Oxford research Encyclopedia of intergroup communication (Vol. 2, pp. 179–192). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dragojevic, M., & Giles, H. (2016). I don’t like you because you’re hard to understand: The role of processing fluency in the language attitudes process. Human Communication Research, 42, 396–420. doi: 10.1111/hcre.12079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dragojevic, M., Giles, H., Beck, A-C., & Tatum, N. T. (2017). The fluency principle: Why foreign accent strength negatively biases language attitudes. Communication Monographs, 84, 385–405. doi: 10.1080/03637751.2017.1322213
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 77–83. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floccia, C., Butler, J., Goslin, L. E., & Ellis, L. (2009). Regional and foreign accent processing in English: Can listeners adapt? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 38, 379–412. doi: 10.1007/s10936-008-9097-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forgas, J. P. (1990). Affective influences on individual and group judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 441–453. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420200506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuertes, J. N., Gottdiener, W., Martin, H., Gilbert, T. C., & Giles, H. (2012). A meta-analysis of the effects of speakers’ accents on interpersonal evaluations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 120–133. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.862
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gass, S., & Varonis, E. M. (1984). The effect of familiarity on the comprehensibility of nonnative speech. Language Learning, 34, 65–87. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1984.tb00996.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genesee, F., & Holobow, N. E. (1989). Change and stability in intergroup perceptions. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 8, 17–38. doi: 10.1177/0261927X8900800102
   Google Scholar
• Giles, H., & Marlow, M. (2011). Theorizing language attitudes: Existing frameworks, an integrative model, and new directions. In C. Salmon (Ed.), Communication yearbook 35 (pp. 161–197). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Giles, H., & Watson, B. (Eds.). (2013). The social meanings of language, dialect, and accent: International perspectives on speech styles. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
   Google Scholar
• Girard, F., Floccia, C., & Goslin, J. (2008). Perception and awareness of accents in young children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 26, 409–433. doi: 10.1348/026151007X251712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gluszek, A., & Dovidio, F. J. (2010a). Speaking with a nonnative accent: Perception of bias, communication difficulties, and belonging in the United States. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29, 224–234. doi: 10.1177/0261927X09359590
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gluszek, A., & Dovidio, J. F. (2010b). The way they speak: A social psychological perspective on the stigma of nonnative accents in communication. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 214–237. doi: 10.1177/1088868309359288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greifeneder, R., Bless, H., & Pham, M. T. (2011). When do people rely on affective and cognitive feelings in judgment? A review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 107–141. doi: 10.1177/1088868310367640
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, K., & Dovidio, J. F. (2016). Social dominance orientation, nonnative accents, and hiring recommendations. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 544–551. doi: 10.1037/cdp0000101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, K., Rakić, T., & Steffens, M. C. (2014). When actions speak louder than words. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33, 68–77. doi: 10.1177/0261927X13499761
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harwood, J., & Joyce, N. (2012). Communication and intergroup contact. In H. Giles (Ed.), Handbook of intergroup communication (pp. 167–168). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Haslam, S. A., Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., McGarty, C., & Reynolds, K. J. (1998). The group as a basis for emergent stereotype consensus. European Review of Social Psychology, 8, 203–239. doi: 10.1080/14792779643000128
   Google Scholar
• Kelley, H. H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107–128. doi: 10.1037/h0034225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinzler, K. D., Dupoux, E., & Spelke, E. S. (2007). The native language of social cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 12577–12580. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0705345104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., & Correll, J. (2010). Priorities in social categories. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 581–592. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.739
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., DeJesus, J., & Spelke, E. S. (2009). Accents trumps race in guiding children’s social preferences. Social Cognition, 27, 623–634. doi: 10.1521/soco.2009.27.4.623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, W. E. (1967). A social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23, 91–109. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1967.tb00578.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lev-Ari, S., & Keysar, B. (2010). Why don’t we believe non-native speakers? The influence of accent on credibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1093–1096. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindemann, S. (2005). Who speaks “broken English”? US undergraduates’ perceptions of non-native English. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 187–212. doi: 10.1111/j.1473-4192.2005.00087.x
   Google Scholar
• Lippi-Green, R. (1994). Accent, standard language ideology, and discriminatory pretext in the courts. Language in Society, 23, 163–198. doi: 10.1017/S0047404500017826
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippi-Green, R. (2012). English with an accent (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Munro, M. J. (1998). The effects of noise on the intelligibility of foreign-accented speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 139–154. doi: 10.1017/S0272263198002022
   Google Scholar
• Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Processing time, accent, and comprehensibility in the perception of native and foreign-accented speech. Language and Speech, 38, 289–306. doi: 10.1177/002383099503800305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (1998–2014). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer, D. M. (2008). The secret life of fluency. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 237–241. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.02.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rakić, T., Steffens, M. C., & Mummendey, A. (2011). Blinded by the accent! The minor role of looks in ethnic categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 16–29. doi: 10.1037/a0021522
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 364–382. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roessel, J., Schoel, C., Zimmermann, R., & Stahlberg, D. (2019). Shedding new light on the evaluation of accented speakers: Basic mechanisms behind nonnative listeners’ evaluations of nonnative accented job candidates. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 38, 3–32. doi: 10.1177/0261927X17747904
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. L., & Smith, K. A. (1990). Effects of accent, ethnicity, and lecture topic on undergraduates’ perceptions of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 337–353. doi: 10.1016/0147-1767(90)90019-S
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, E. B. (1983). Social psychological mechanisms underlying native speaker evaluations of non-native speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 5, 148–159. doi: 10.1017/S0272263100004824
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz, N. (2012). Feelings-as-information theory. In P. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 289–308). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz, N. (2015). Metacognition. In M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, E. Borgida, & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), APA handbook of personality and social psychology: Attitudes and social cognition (pp. 203–229). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Sebastian, R. J., Ryan, E. B., Keogh, T., & Schmidt, A. (1980). The effects of negative affect arousal on reactions to speakers. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. M. Smith (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 203–208). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
   Google Scholar
• Shepherd, M. A., Simonian, J. R., & Trussler, L. C. (2017). The subtitle effect: How subtitle-facilitated perceptual learning can make subtitles (seem) less necessary. Communication Research Reports, 34, 350–358. doi: 10.1080/08824096.2017.1356712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shuck, G. (2006). Racializing the Nonnative English speaker, Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 5, 259–276. doi: 10.1207/s15327701jlie0504_1
   Google Scholar
• Shulman, H. C., & Bullock, O. M. (2019). Using metacognitive cues to amplify message content: A new direction in strategic communication. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43, 24–39. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2019.1570472
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, M. A., Ryan, E. B., & Giles, H. (1985). Accent and social class effects on status and solidarity evaluations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 98–105. doi: 10.1177/0146167285111009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Weinberger, S. H. (2017). The speech accent archive. George Mason University. Retrieved from http://accent.gmu.edu
   Google Scholar
• Winkielman, P., Schwarz, N., Fazendeiro, T. A., & Reber, R. (2003). The hedonic marking of processing fluency: Implications for evaluative judgment. In J. Musch & K. C. Klauer (Eds.), The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion (pp. 195–225). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Woolard, K. A., & Gahng, T. (1990). Changing language policies and attitudes in autonomous Catalonia. Language in Society, 19, 311–330. doi: 10.1017/S0047404500014536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar