632
Views
100
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Male/female language differences and effects in same‐sex and mixed‐sex dyads: The gender‐linked language effect

, , &
Pages 315-335 | Published online: 02 Jun 2009

References

  • Andersen , P.A. and Andersen , J.F. 1984 . The exchange of nonverbal intimacy: A critical review of dyadic models . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 8 : 327 – 349 .
  • Ashmore , R.D. 1981 . “ Sex stereotypes and implicit personality theory ” . In Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior , Edited by: Hamilton , D.L. 37 – 81 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
  • Ashmore , R.D. and Del Boca , F.K. 1981 . “ Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping ” . In Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior , Edited by: Hamilton , D.L. 1 – 35 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
  • Ashmore , R.D. and Tumia , M.L. 1980 . Sex stereotypes and implicit personality theory: I. A personality description approach to the assessment of sex stereotypes . Sex Roles , 6 : 501 – 518 .
  • Broverman , I.K. , Vogel , S.R. , Broverman , D.M. , Clarkson , F.E. and Rosenkrantz , P.S. 1972 . Sex‐role stereotypes: A current appraisal . Journal of Social Issues , 28 : 59 – 78 .
  • Cappella , J.N. 1983 . “ Conversational involvement: Approaching and avoiding others ” . In Nonverbal interaction , Edited by: Wiemann , J.M. and Harrison , R.P. 113 – 148 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
  • Cappella , J.N. and Greene , J.O. 1982 . A discrepancy‐arousal explanation of mutual influence in expressive behavior for adult and infant‐adult interaction . Communication Monographs , 49 : 89 – 114 .
  • Cappella , J.N. and Greene , J.O. 1982 . A discrepancy‐arousal explanation of mutual influence in expressive behavior for adult‐adult and infant‐adult interaction . Communication Monographs , 49 : 89 – 114 .
  • Cappella , J.N. and Planalp , S. 1981 . Talk and silence sequences in informal conversations: III. Interspeaker influence . Human Communication Research , 7 : 117 – 132 .
  • Crosby , F. and Nyquist , L. 1977 . The female register: An empirical study of Lakoff's hypotheses . Language in Society , 6 : 519 – 535 .
  • Dindia , K. 1987 . The effects of sex of subject and sex of partner on interruptions . Human Communication Research , 13 : 345 – 371 .
  • Fisher , B.A. 1983 . Differential effects of sexual composition and interactional context on interaction patterns in dyads . Human Communication Research , 9 : 225 – 238 .
  • Fishman , P.M. 1978 . Interaction: The work women do . Social Problems , 25 : 397 – 406 .
  • Forgas , J.P. 1983 . Language, goals and situations . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 2 : 267 – 293 .
  • Giles , H. , Mulac , A. , Bradac , J.J. and Johnson , P. 1987 . “ Speech accommodation theory: The first decade and beyond ” . In Communication yearbook , Edited by: McLaughlin , M.L. Vol. 10 , 13 – 48 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
  • Giles , H. and Powesland , P.F. 1975 . Speech style and social evaluation , London : Academic Press .
  • Giles , H. and Smith , P. 1979 . “ Accommodation theory: Optimal levels of convergence ” . In Language and social psychology , Edited by: Giles , H. and Clair , R.N. St. 45 – 65 . Oxford : Blackwell .
  • Giles , H. , Scherer , K.R. and Taylor , D.M. 1979 . “ Speech markers in social interaction ” . In Social markers in speech , Edited by: Scherer , K.R. and Giles , H. 343 – 381 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Gleser , G.C. , Gottschalk , L.A. and John , W. 1959 . The relationship of sex and intelligence to choice of words: A normative study of verbal behavior . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 15 : 182 – 191 .
  • Golub , S. and Canty , E.M. 1982 . Sex‐role expectations and the assumption of leadership by college women . Journal of Social Psychology , 116 : 83 – 90 .
  • Haas , A. 1979 . “ The acquisition of genderlect ” . In Language, sex and gender: Does la difference make a difference? , Edited by: Orasanu , J. , Slater , M.K. and Adler , L.L. 101 – 113 . New York : New York Academy of Sciences .
  • Hammen , C.L. and Peplau , L.A. 1978 . Brief encounters: Impact of gender, sex‐role attitudes, and partner's gender on interaction and cognition . Sex Roles , 4 : 75 – 90 .
  • Hiatt , M.P. 1978 . The feminine style: Theory and fact . College Composition and Communication , 29 : 222 – 226 .
  • Hirschman , L. . Female‐male differences in conversational interaction . Paper presented at the meeting of the Linguistic Society of America . San Diego, CA. December ,
  • Hunt , K.W. 1960 . Grammatical structures written at three grade levels , Champaign, IL : National Council of Teachers of English .
  • Ickes , W. and Barnes , R.D. 1977 . The role of sex and self‐monitoring in unstructured dyadic interactions . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 35 : 315 – 330 .
  • Ickes , W. and Barnes , R.D. 1978 . Boys and girls together—and alienated: On enacting stereotyped sex roles in mixed‐sex dyads . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 36 : 669 – 683 .
  • Ickes , W. , Patterson , M.L. , Rajecki , D.W. and Tanford , S. 1982 . Behavioral and cognitive consequences of reciprocal versus compensatory response to preinteraction expectancies . Social Cognition , 1 : 160 – 190 .
  • Kerlinger , F.N. 1973 . Foundations of behavioral research , 2nd ed. , New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston .
  • Koenigsknecht , R.A. and Friedman , P. 1976 . Syntax development in boys and girls . Child Development , 47 : 1109 – 1115 .
  • Kramarae , C. 1981 . Woman and men speaking , Rowley, MA : Newbury House .
  • Kraemer , H.C. and Jacklin , C.N. 1979 . Statistical analysis of dyadic social behavior . Psychological Bulletin , 86 : 217 – 224 .
  • Lakoff , R. 1975 . Language and women's place , New York : Harper & Row .
  • Lapadat , J. and Seesahai , M. 1978 . Male versus female codes in informal contexts . Sociolinguistic Newsletter , 8 : 7 – 8 .
  • Maltz , D.N. and Borker , R.A. 1982 . “ A cultural approach to male‐female miscommunication ” . In Language and social identity , Edited by: Gumperz , J.J. 196 – 216 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Martin , J.N. and Craig , R.T. 1983 . Selected linguistic sex differences during initial social interactions of same‐sex and mixed‐sex student dyads . Western Journal of Speech Communication , 47 : 16 – 28 .
  • McLaughlin , M.L. 1980 . “ Discriminant analysis in communication research ” . In Multivariate techniques in human communication research , Edited by: Monge , P.R. and Cappella , J.N. 175 – 204 . New York : Academic Press .
  • McLaughlin , M.L. , Cody , M.J. , Kane , M.L. and Robey , C.S. 1981 . Sex differences in story receipt and story sequencing behaviors in dyadic conversation . Human Communication Research , 7 : 99 – 116 .
  • McMillan , J.R. , Clifton , A.K. , McGrath , D. and Gale , W.S. 1977 . Women's language: Uncertainty or interpersonal sensitivity and emotionality? . Sex Roles , 3 : 545 – 559 .
  • Mulac , A. 1975 . Evaluation of the speech dialect attitudinal scale . Speech Monographs , 42 : 182 – 189 .
  • Mulac , A. 1976 . Assessment and application of the revised speech dialect attitudinal scale . Communication Monographs , 43 : 238 – 245 .
  • Mulac , A. , Blau , S. and Bauquier , L. . Gender‐linked language differences and their effects in male and female students’ impromptu essays . Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association . Washington, D.C.. November ,
  • Mulac , A. , Incontro , C.R. and James , M.R. 1985 . Comparison of the gender‐linked language effect and sex role stereotypes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 49 : 1098 – 1109 .
  • Mulac , A. and Lundell , T.L. 1980 . Differences in perceptions created by syntactic‐semantic productions of male and female speakers . Communication Monographs , 47 : 111 – 118 .
  • Mulac , A. and Lundell , T.L. . Effects of gender‐linked language differences in male and female written communication . Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association . Anaheim, CA. November ,
  • Mulac , A. and Lundell , T.L. 1982 . An empirical test of the gender‐linked language effect in a public speaking setting . Language and Speech , 25 : 243 – 256 .
  • Mulac , A. and Lundell , T.L. 1986 . Linguistic contributors to the gender‐linked language effect . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 5 : 81 – 101 .
  • Mulac , A. , Lundell , T.L. and Bradac , J.J. 1986 . Male/female language differences and attributional consequences in a public speaking situation: Toward an explanation of the gender‐linked language effect . Communication Monographs , 53 : 115 – 129 .
  • Mulac , A. and Rudd , M.J. 1977 . Effects of selected American regional dialects upon regional audience members . Communication Monographs , 44 : 185 – 195 .
  • Mulac , A. , Studley , L.B. , Wiemann , J.M. and Bradac , J.J. 1987 . Male/female gaze in same‐sex and mixed‐sex dyads: A test of gender‐linked differences and mutual influence . Human Communication Research , 13 : 323 – 343 .
  • Mulaik , S.A. 1972 . The foundations of factor analysis , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
  • Patterson , M.L. 1984 . Nonverbal exchange: Past, present and future . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 8 : 35 – 39 .
  • Piliavin , J.A. and Martin , R.R. 1978 . The effects of the sex composition of groups on style of social interaction . Sex Roles , 4 : 281 – 296 .
  • Poole , M.E. 1979 . Social class, sex, and linguistic coding . Language and Speech , 22 : 49 – 67 .
  • Price , B.G. and Graves , R.L. 1980 . Sex differences in syntax and usage in oral and written language . Research in the Teaching of English , 14 : 147 – 153 .
  • Sause , E.F. 1976 . Computer content analysis of sex differences in the language of children . Journal of Psycholinguistic Research , 5 : 311 – 324 .
  • Smith , P.M. 1985 . Language, the sexes and society , Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
  • Staley , C.M. 1982 . Sex‐related differences in the style of children's language . Journal of Psycholinguistic Research , 11 : 141 – 158 .
  • Street , R.L. Jr. and Giles , H. 1982 . “ Speech accommodation theory: A social cognitive approach to language and speech behavior ” . In Social cognition and communication , Edited by: Roloff , M.E. and Berger , C.R. 193 – 226 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
  • Strodtbeck , F.L. and Mann , R.D. 1956 . Sex role differentiation in jury deliberation . Sociometry , 19 : 3 – 11 .
  • Thakerar , J.N. , Giles , H. and Cheshire , J. 1982 . “ Psychological and linguistic parameters of speech accommodation theory ” . In Advances in the social psychology of language , Edited by: Fraser , C. and Sherer , K.R. 205 – 255 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Thorne , B. , Kramarae , C. and Henley , N. 1983 . “ Language, gender and society: Opening a second decade of research ” . In Language, gender and society , Edited by: Thorne , B. , Kramarae , C. and Henley , N. 7 – 24 . Rowley, MA : Newbury House .
  • West , C. and Zimmerman , D. 1983 . “ Small insults: A study of interruptions in cross‐sex conversations between unacquainted persons ” . In Language, gender and society , Edited by: Thorne , B. , Kramarae , C. and Henley , N. 102 – 117 . Rowley, MA : Newbury House .
  • Wiemann , J.M. , Mulac , A. , Zimmerman , D. and Mann , S.K. . Interruption patterns in same‐gender and mixed‐gender dyadic conversations . Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Social Psychology and Language . Bristol, England. July ,
  • Williams , J.E. and Bennett , S.M. 1975 . The definition of sex stereotypes via the Adjective Check List . Sex Roles , 1 : 327 – 337 .
  • Winer , B.J. 1971 . Statistical principles in experimental design , 2nd ed. , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
  • Zahn , C.J. and Hopper , R. 1985 . Measuring language attitudes: The speech evaluation instrument . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 4 : 113 – 123 .
  • Zahn , C.J. and Hopper , R. . The bases for differing evaluations of male and female speech: Evidence from ratings of transcribed conversation . Paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association . Boston, MA. November ,
  • Zimmerman , D.H. and West , C. 1975 . “ Sex roles, interruptions, and silences in conversation ” . In Language and sex: Differences and dominance , Edited by: Thorne , B. and Henley , N. 105 – 129 . Rowley, MA : Newbury House .
  • Anthony Mulac and fohn M. Wiemann are Professors, and Toni W. Gibson, a former graduate student, Communication Studies Program, University of California, Santa Barbara. Sally J. Widenmann is a Lecturer, Department of Rhetoric and Communication, University of California, Davis. A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Second International Conference on Social Psychology and Language, Bristol, England, July, 1983, under the title, “Male/Female Language Differences and Their Effects in Like‐Sex and Mixed‐Sex Dyads: A Test of Interpersonal Accommodation and the Gender‐Linked Language Effect.” The authors wish to thank Gordon Smyth and Lyn Whitaker for their assistance in statistical modeling and James J. Bradac, Mary Anne Fitzpatrick, Howard Giles, Torborg L. Lundell, the Editor, and two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the manuscript.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.