References
- Anatol , K.W.E. and Mandel , J.E. 1972 . Strategies of resistance to persuasion: New subject matter for the teacher of speech communication . Central States Speech Journal , 23 : 11 – 17 .
- Anderson , L.R. and McGuire , W.J. 1965 . Prior reassurance of group consensus as a factor in producing resistance to persuasion . Sociometry , 28 : 44 – 56 .
- Armstrong , R. 1988 . The next hurrah: The communication revolution in American politics , New York : Beach Tree Books, William Morrow .
- Atkin , C.K. 1971 . How imbalanced campaign coverage affects audience exposure patterns . Journalism Quarterly , 48 : 235 – 244 .
- Axelrod , R. 1972 . Where the voters came from: An analysis of electoral coalitions, 1952–1968 . American Political Science Review , 66 : 11 – 20 .
- Axelrod , R. 1974 . Communication . American Political Science Review , 68 : 717 – 720 .
- Axelrod , R. 1978 . Communication . American Political Science Review , 72 : 622 – 624 . 1010 – 1011 .
- Axelrod , R. 1982 . Communication . American Political Science Review , 76 : 393 – 396 .
- Axelrod , R. 1986 . Presidential election coalitions in 1984 . American Political Science Review , 80 : 281 – 285 .
- Beck , P.L. 1988 . “ Incomplete realignment: The Reagan legacy for parties and elections ” . In The Reagan legacy: Promise and performance , Edited by: Jones , C.O. 145 – 171 . Chatham, NJ : Chatham House Publishers .
- Becker , S.W. , Bavelas , A. and Braden , M. 1961 . An index to measure contingency of English sentences . Language and Speech , 4 : 138 – 145 .
- Blumler , J.G. and McQuail , D. 1969 . Television and politics: Its uses and influence , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Burgoon , M. and Chase , L.J. 1973 . The effects of differential linguistic patterns in messages attempting to induce resistance to persuasion . Speech Monographs , 40 : 1 – 7 .
- Burgoon , M. , Cohen , M. , Miller , M.D. and Montgomery , C.L. 1978 . An empirical test of a model of resistance to persuasion . Human Communication Research , 5 : 27 – 39 .
- Campbell , A. , Converse , P.E. , Miller , W.E. and Stokes , D.E. 1960 . The American voter , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
- Campbell , A. , Gurin , G. and Miller , W.E. 1954 . The voter decides , Evanston : Row, Peterson and Co .
- Campbell , J.E. , Munro , M. , Alford , J.R. and Campbell , B.A. 1986 . Partisanship and voting . Research in Micropolitics , 1 : 99 – 126 .
- Chaffee , S.H. and Choe , S.Y. 1980 . Time of decision and media use during the Ford‐Carter campaign . Public Opinion Quarterly , 44 : 53 – 69 .
- Chaiken , S. 1987 . “ The heuristic model of persuasion ” . In Social influence: The Ontario symposium , Edited by: Zanna , M.P. , Olson , J.M. and Herman , C.P. Vol. 5 , 3 – 39 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
- Colford , S.W. 1988 . Politicos resort to “ambush” ads on TV . Advertising Age , March 14 : 3
- Ehrenhalt , A. 1985 . Technology, strategy bring new campaign era . Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report , 43 : 2559 – 2565 .
- Frantzich , S.E. 1989 . Political parties in the technological age , New York : Longman .
- Garramone , G.M. 1984 . Voter responses to negative political ads . Journalism Quarterly , 61 : 250 – 259 .
- Garramone , G.M. 1985 . Effects of negative political advertising: The roles of sponsors and rebuttal . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 29 : 147 – 159 .
- Garramone , G.M. and Smith , S.J. 1984 . Reactions to political advertising: Clarifying sponsor effects . Journalism Quarterly , 61 : 771 – 775 .
- Godwin , R.K. 1988 . One billion dollars of influence: The direct marketing of politics , Chatham, NJ : Chatham House Publishers .
- Gronbeck , B.E. . The rhetoric of negative political advertising: Thoughts on Senatorial race ads in 1984 . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association . Denver, CO. November ,
- Guskind , R. and Hagstrom , J. 1988 . In the gutter . National Journal , 20 : 2782 – 2790 .
- Heller , D.J. 1987 . Mail, money, and Machiavelli . Campaigns & Elections , 8 : 32 – 45 .
- Hershey , M.R. 1989 . “ The campaign and the media ” . In The election of 1988: Reports and interpretations , Edited by: Pomper , G.M. 73 – 102 . Chatham, NJ : Chatham House Publishers, Inc. .
- Hickey , N. 1986 . Smear commercials can work: It's high noon for political mudslingers—let the targets beware . TV Guide , October 18 : 5 – 6 .
- Johnson‐Cartee , K.S. and Copeland , G.A. . Alabama voters and acceptance of negative political advertising in the 1986 elections: An historical anomaly. . Paper presented at the International Communication Association convention . San Francisco, CA. May ,
- Kaid , L.L. and Boydston , J. 1987 . An experimental study of the effectiveness of negative political advertisements . Communication Quarterly , 35 : 193 – 201 .
- Kaid , L.L. and Davidson , D.K. 1986 . “ Elements of videostyle: Candidate presentation through television advertising ” . In New perspectives on political advertising , Edited by: Kaid , L.L. , Nimmo , D. and Sanders , K.R. 184 – 209 . Carbondale : Southern Illinois University Press .
- King , M. 1977 . Assimilation and contrast of presidential candidates’ issue positions . Public Opinion Quarterly , 41 : 515 – 522 .
- Kirk , R.E. 1982 . Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences , (2nd ed.) , Belmont : Brooks/Cole Publishing Company .
- Kostroski , W.L. 1973 . Party and incumbency in postwar senate elections: Trends, patterns, and models . American Political Science Review , 68 : 1213 – 1234 .
- Louden , A. . Political advertising in the Hunt/Helms race: Pot shots and hot spots. . Paper presented at the International Communication Association convention . Montreal, Canada. May ,
- Mann , T.E. and Ornstein , N. 1983 . “ Sending a message: Voters and Congress in 1982 ” . In The American election of 1982 , Edited by: Mann , T.E. and Ornstein , N. 133 – 152 . Washington, DC : American Enterprise Institute .
- Martinez , M.D. and DeLegal , T. . Negative ads and negative attitudes: Effects and non‐effects on trust and efficacy. . Paper presented at the Midwest Political Science Association convention . Chicago, IL. April ,
- McGuire , W.J. 1961a . The effectiveness of supportive and refutational defenses in immunizing and restoring beliefs against persuasion . Sociometry , 24 : 184 – 197 .
- McGuire , W.J. 1961b . Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 63 : 326 – 332 .
- McGuire , W.J. 1962 . Persistence of the resistance to persuasion induced by various types of prior belief defenses . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 64 : 241 – 248 .
- McGuire , W.J. 1964 . “ Inducing resistance to persuasion. Some contemporary approaches ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Berkowitz , L. Vol. 1 , 191 – 229 . New York : Academic Press .
- McGuire , W.J. 1970 . A vaccine for brainwash . Psychology Today , 3 February : 36 – 39 . 63 – 64 .
- McGuire , W.J. and Papageorgis , D. 1961 . The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief‐defense in producing immunity against persuasion . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 62 : 327 – 337 .
- McGuire , W.J. and Papageorgis , D. 1962 . Effectiveness of forewarning in developing resistance to persuasion . Public Opinion Quarterly , 26 : 24 – 34 .
- Merritt , S. 1984 . Negative political advertising: Some empirical findings . Journal of Advertising , 13 : 27 – 38 .
- Miller , G.R. and Burgeon , M. 1973 . New techniques of persuasion , New York : Harper & Row Publishers .
- Miller , M.D. and Burgoon , M. 1979 . The relationship between violations of expectations and the induction of resistance to persuasion . Human Communication Research , 5 : 301 – 313 .
- 1985 . Moving right along? Campaign 1984, lessons for 1988. An interview with Peter Hart and Richard Wirthlin . Public Opinion , 7 : 8 – 11 . 59 – 63 .
- Moyers , B. 1984 . “ Press perspectives ” . In Election 84: Search for a new coalition , Edited by: Jeffrey , R.C. 24 – 40 . Austin : University of Texas Press .
- Niemi , R.G. and Weisberg , H.F. 1984 . Controveries in voting behavior , (2nd ed.) , Washington, DC : Congressional Quarterly Press .
- Norpoth , H. 1987 . Under way and here to stay: Party alignment in the 1980s? . Public Opinion Quarterly , 51 : 376 – 391 .
- Nugent , J.F. 1987 . Positively negative . Campaigns if Elections , 7 March/April : 47 – 49 .
- Nyhan , D. 1988 . The Duke: The inside story of a political phenomenon , New York : Warner Books .
- Papageorgis , D. and McGuire , W.J. 1961 . The generality of immunity to persuasion produced by pre‐exposure to weakened counterarguments . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 62 : 475 – 481 .
- Petrocik , J.R. 1981 . Party coalitions: Realignment, and the decline of the New Deal party system , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Petrocik , J.R. 1987 . Realignment: New party coalitions and the nationalization of the South . The Journal of Politics , 49 : 347 – 373 .
- Petty , R.E. 1977 . The importance of cognitive responses in persuasion . Advances in Consumer Research , 4 : 357 – 362 .
- Petty , R.E. and Cacioppo , J.T. 1979 . Issue involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing message‐relevant cognitive responses . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 : 1915 – 1926 .
- Petty , R.E. and Cacioppo , J.T. 1984 . The effects of involvement in responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 46 : 69 – 81 .
- Pfau , M. and Burgoon , M. in press . The efficacy of issue and character attack message strategies in political campaign communication . Communication Reports ,
- Pfau , M. and Burgoon , M. 1988b . Inoculation in political campaign communication . Human Communication Research , 75 : 91 – 111 .
- Reilley , C. 1987 . Direct mail on target . Campaigns & Elections , 6 : 36 – 40 .
- Sabato , L.J. 1981 . The rise of political consultants: New ways of winning elections , New York : Basic Books, Inc., Publishers .
- Sabato , L.J. 1983 . “ Parties, PACS, and independent groups ” . In The American election of 1982 , Edited by: Mann , T.E. and Ornstein , N.J. 72 – 110 . Washington, DC : American Enterprise Institute .
- Salmore , S.A. and Salmore , B.G. 1985 . Candidates, parties, and campaigns: Electoral politics in America , Washington, DC : Congressional Quarterly Press .
- Schneider , W. 1988 . Solidarity's not enough . National Journal , 20 : 2853 – 2855 .
- Sherrod , D. 1971 . Selection perceptions of political candidates . Public Opinion Quarterly , 35 : 354 – 362 .
- Stanga , J.T. and Sheffield , J.T. 1987 . The myth of zero partisanship: Attitudes toward American political parties, 1964–84 . American Journal of Political Science , 31 : 829 – 855 .
- Stanley , H.W. , Bianco , W.T. and Niemi , R.G. 1986 . Partisanship and group support over time: A multivariate analysis . American Political Science Review , 80 : 969 – 976 .
- Stewart , C.J. 1975 . Voter perceptions of mudslinging in political communication . Central States Speech Journal , 26 : 279 – 286 .
- Surlin , S.H. and Gordon , T.F. 1977 . How values affect attitudes toward direct reference political advertising . Journalism Quarterly , 54 : 89 – 98 .
- Tannenbaum , P.H. , Macaulay , J.R. and Norris , E.L. 1966 . Principle of congruity and reduction of persuasion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2 : 233 – 238 .
- Tannenbaum , P.H. and Norris , E.L. 1965 . Effects of combining congruity principle strategies for the reduction of persuasion . Sociometry , 28 : 145 – 157 .
- Tarrance , V.L. Jr. 1980 . Negative campaigns and negative votes: The 1980 elections , Washington, DC : Free Congress Research and Education Foundation .
- Taylor , P. 1986 . Accentuating the negative: Forget issue; campaign ads this year are heavy on “air pollution.” . The Washington Post National Weekly Edition , 3 (51) : 6 – 7 .
- Trent , J.S. and Friedenberg , R.V. 1983 . Political campaign communication: Principles and practices , New York : Praeger Publishers .
- Wattenberg , M.P. 1986 . The decline of American political parties, 1952–1984 , Cambridge : Harvard University Press .
- Weisberg , H.F. and Rusk , J.G. 1970 . Dimensions of candidate evaluation . American Political Science Review , 64 : 1167 – 1185 .
- Whiteley , P.F. 1988 . The causal relationships between issues, candidate evaluations, party identification, and vote choice—The view from “Rolling Thunder.” . Journal of Politics , 50 : 961 – 984 .