671
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

CNS Disorders—Current Treatment Options and the Prospects for Advanced Therapies

&
Pages 1141-1167 | Published online: 20 Oct 2008

REFERENCES

  • Abilify® (aripiprazole)—A Treatment for Bipolar Disorder and Schizophrenia. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.abilify.com.
  • M. S. Albert. 2007. Changing the trajectory of cognitive decline?. N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (5):502–503.
  • Aricept® (donepezil HCI)—Official Site—Aricept—Alzheimer's. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.aricept.com/.
  • M. N. Azmin, J. F. B. Stuart, and A. T. Florence. 1985. The distribution and elimination of methotrexate in mouse blood and brain after concurrent administration of polysorbate 80. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 14 (3):238–242.
  • S. O. Bachurin, B. K. Beznosko, V. V. Grigoriev, T. A. Serkova, V. A. Palyulin, and N. S. Zefirov. 2007. Design of novel europrotective NMDA-Receptor Ligands. Frontiers in CNS and Oncology Medicinal Chemistry 7–9.
  • E. V. Batrakova, and A. V. Kabanov. 2007. Strategies to Overcome the Blood-Brain Barrier. In E. Touitou, and B. W. Barry (Eds.), Enhancement in drug delivery (pp. 593–614). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
  • S. Baulac, G. Huberfeld, I. Gourfinkel-An, G. Mitropoulou, A. Beranger, J. -F. Prud'homme, M. Baulac, A. Brice, R. Bruzzone, and E. LeGuern. 2001. First genetic evidence of GABAA receptor dysfunction in epilepsy: A mutation in the γ2-subunit gene. Nat. Genet. 28 (1):46–48.
  • S. R. Benbadis. 2001. Epileptic seizures and syndromes. Neurol. Clin. 19 (2):251–270.
  • G. J. Bennett, and Y. K. Xie. 1988. A peripheral mononeuropathy in rat that produces disorders of pain sensation like those seen in man. Pain 33 (1):87–107.
  • BETASERON.com │ Your Resource for Information on Multiple Sclerosis and BETASERON Treatment. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.betaseron.com.
  • E. Bettelli. 2007. Building different mouse models for human MS. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1103:11–18. (How Do We Best Employ Animal Models for Type 1 Diabetes and Multiple Sclerosis?)
  • E. Bettelli, M. Pagany, H. L. Weiner, C. Linington, R. A. Sobcl, and V. K. Kuchroo. 2003. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific T cell receptor transgenic mice develop spontaneous autoimmune optic neuritis. J. Exp. Med. 197 (9):1073–1081.
  • K. Biziere, P. Worms, J. P. Kan, P. Mandel, S. Garattini, and R. Roncucci. 1985. Minaprine, a new drug with antidepressant properties. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 11 (12):831–840.
  • R. J. Boado, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhang, and W. M. Pardridge. 2007. Genetic engineering, expression, and activity of a fusion protein of a human neurotrophin and a molecular trojan horse for delivery across the human blood-brain barrier. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 97 (6):1376–1386.
  • R. J. Boado, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhang, C. -F. Xia, and W. M. Pardridge. 2007. Fusion Antibody for Alzheimer's disease with bidirectional transport across the blood-brain barrier and aβ fibril disaggregation. Bioconjug. Chem. 18 (2):447–455.
  • C. Bolton. 2007. The translation of drug efficacy from in vivo models to human disease with special reference to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis. Inflammopharmacology 15 (5):183–187.
  • F. Bonina, C. Puglia, M. G. Rimoli, D. Melisi, G. Boatto, M. Nieddu, A. Calignano, G. La Rana, and P. De Caprariis. 2003. Glycosyl derivatives of dopamine and L-dopa as anti-Parkinson prodrugs: Synthesis, pharmacological activity and in vitro stability studies. J. Drug Target. 11 (1):25–36.
  • J. R. Boot, G. Brace, C. L. Delatour, N. Dezutter, J. Fairhurst, J. Findlay, P. T. Gallagher, I. Hoes, S. Mahadevan, S. N. Mitchell, R. E. Rathmell, S. J. Richards, R. G. Simmonds, L. Wallace, and M. A. Whatton. 2004. Benzothienyloxy phenylpropanamines, novel dual inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 14 (21):5395–5399.
  • F. Borsini. 1995. Role of the serotonergic system in the forced swimming test. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 19 (3):377–395.
  • J. Cabarrocas, C. Cassan, F. Magnusson, E. Piaggio, L. Mars, J. Derbinski, B. Kyewski, D. A. Gross, B. L. Salomon, K. Khazaie, A. Saoudi, and R. S. Liblau. 2006. Foxp3+ CD25+ regulatory T cells specific for a neo-self-antigen develop at the double-positive thymic stage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 103 (22):8453–8458.
  • B. Capuano, I. T. Crosby, and E. J. Lloyd. 2002. Schizophrenia: Genesis, receptorology and current therapeutics. Curr. Med. Chem. 9 (5):521–548.
  • C. Cassan, and R. S. Liblau. 2007. Immune tolerance and control of CNS autoimmunity: From animal models to MS patients. J. Neurochem. 100 (4):883–892.
  • S. A. Castner, P. S. Goldman-Rakic, and G. V. Williams. 2004. Animal models of working memory: Insights for targeting cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 174 (1):111–125.
  • B. S. Chang, and D. H. Lowenstein. 2003. Epilepsy. N. Engl. J. Med. 349 (13):1257–1266.
  • J. Chopineau, S. Robert, L. Fenart, R. Cecchelli, B. Lagoutte, S. Paitier, M. P. Dehouck, and D. Domurado. 1998. Monoacylation of ribonuclease A enables its transport across an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier. J. Control. Release 56 (1–3):231–237.
  • Clinical Pharmacology—Drug Product Monographs (Publication (2007)). Retrieved December 31, 2007, from Gold Standard: M. J. Coloma, H. J. Lee, A. Kurihara, E. M. Landaw, R. J. Boado, S. L. Morrison, and W. M. Pardridge. 2000. Transport across the primate blood-brain barrier of a genetically engineered chimeric monoclonal antibody to the human insulin receptor. Pharm. Res., 17(3), 266–274.
  • U. Conte, and L. Maggi. 2000. A flexible technology for the linear, pulsatile and delayed release of drugs, allowing for easy accommodation of difficult in vitro targets. J. Control. Release 64 (1–3):263–268.
  • Copaxone®—Multiple sclerosis therapy helping you manage your relapsing-remitting MS symptoms. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.copaxone.com.
  • E. H. Corder, A. M. Saunders, W. J. Strittmatter, D. E. Schmechel, P. C. Gaskell, G. W. Small, A. D. Roses, J. L. Haines, and M. A. Pericak-Vance. 1993. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science 261 (5123):921–923.
  • B. Costall, R. J. Naylor, and V. Nohria. 1980a. Dopamine agonist and antagonist action after mesolimbic denervation. Br. J. Pharmacol. 70 (1):49P–50P.
  • B. Costall, R. J. Naylor, and V. Nohria. 1980b. On the importance of mesolimbic mechanisms for the control of apomorphine induced climbing behavior in the mouse. Br. J. Pharmacol. 68 (1):175P–176P.
  • M. Costigan, K. Befort, L. Karchewski, R. S. Griffin, D. D'Urso, A. Allchorne, J. Sitarski, J. W. Mannion, R. E. Pratt, and C. J. Woolf. 2002. Replicate high-density rat genome oligonucleotide microarrays reveal hundreds of regulated genes in the dorsal root ganglion after peripheral nerve injury. BMC Neurosci. 3 (16):
  • J. F. Cryan, and A. Holmes. 2005. Model organisms: The ascent of mouse: Advances in modeling human depression and anxiety. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 4 (9):775–790.
  • J. F. Cryan, C. Mombereau, and A. Vassout. 2005. The tail suspension test as a model for assessing antidepressant activity: Review of pharmacological and genetic studies in mice. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29 (4–5):571–625.
  • J. F. Cryan, and D. A. Slattery. 2007. Animal models of mood disorders: Recent developments. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 20 (1):1–7.
  • J. F. Cryan, R. J. Valentino, and I. Lucki. 2005. Assessing substrates underlying the behavioral effects of antidepressants using the modified rat forced swimming test. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29 (4–5):547–569.
  • Cymbalta.com. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.cymbalta.com.
  • I. Decosterd, and C. J. Woolf. 2000. Spared nerve injury: An animal model of persistent peripheral neuropathic pain. Pain 87 (2):149–158.
  • N. Denora, V. Laquintana, A. Lopedota, M. Serra, L. Dazzi, G. Biggio, D. Pal, A. K. Mitra, A. Latrofa, G. Trapani, and G. Liso. 2007. Novel L-Dopa and dopamine prodrugs containing a 2-phenyl-imidazopyridine moiety. Pharm. Res. 24 (7):1309–1324.
  • M. J. Detke, M. Rickels, and I. Lucki. 1995. Active behaviors in the rat forced swimming test differentially produced by serotonergic and noradrenergic antidepressants. Psychopharmacology 121 (1):66–72.
  • P. Dorado, E. M. Peñas-Lledó, A. P. González, M. C. Cáceres, J. Cobaleda, and A. Llerena. 2007. Increased risk for major depression associated with the short allele of the serotonin transporter promoter region (5-HTTLPR-S) and the CYP2C9*3 allele. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 21 (4):451–453.
  • V. Duplan, G. Beriou, J. -M. Heslan, C. Bruand, P. Dutartre, L. T. Mars, R. S. Liblau, M. C. Cuturi, and A. Saoudi. 2006. LF 15–0195 Treatment Protects against Central Nervous System Autoimmunity by Favoring the Development of Foxp3-Expressing Regulatory CD4 T Cells. J. Immunol. 176 (2):839–847.
  • R. H. Dworkin, M. Backonja, M. C. Rowbotham, R. R. Allen, C. R. Argoff, G. J. Bennett, M. C. Bushnell, J. T. Farrar, B. S. Galer, J. A. Haythornthwaite, D. J. Hewitt, J. D. Loeser, M. B. Max, M. Saltarelli, K. E. Schmader, C. Stein, D. Thompson, D. C. Turk, M. S. Wallace, L. R. Watkins, and S. M. Weinstein. 2003. Advances in neuropathic pain: Diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment recommendations. Arch. Neurol. 60 (11):1524–1534.
  • M. El Yacoubi, and J. -M. Vaugeois. 2007. Genetic rodent models of depression. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 7 (1):3–7.
  • M. D. Ellison, J. T. Povlishock, and R. E. Merchant. 1987. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction in cats following recombinant interleukin-2 infusion. Cancer Res. 47 (21):5765–5760.
  • A. Escayg, B. T. MacDonald, M. H. Meisler, S. Baulac, G. Huberfeld, I. An-Gourfinkel, A. Brice, E. LeGuern, B. Moulard, D. Chaigne, C. Buresi, and A. Malafosse. 2000. Mutations of SCN1A, encoding a neuronal sodium channel, in two families with GEFS+2. Nat. Genet. 24 (4):343–345.
  • Exelon® Patch. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.exelonpatch.com.
  • H. Fischer, R. Gottschlich, and A. Seelig. 1998. Blood-brain barrier permeation: Molecular parameters governing passive diffusion. J. Membr. Biol. 165 (3):201–211.
  • A. Fox, C. Eastwood, C. Gentry, D. Manning, and L. Urban. 1999. Critical evaluation of the streptozotocin model of painful diabetic neuropathy in the rat. Pain 81 (3):307–316.
  • R. Freedman. 2003. Schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 349 (18):1738–1749.
  • D. Games, D. Adams, R. Alessandrini, R. Barbour, P. Borthelette, C. Blackwell, T. Carr, J. Clemens, T. Donaldson, F. Gillespie, T. Guido, S. Hagopian, K. Johnson-Wood, K. Khan, M. Lee, P. Leibowitz, I. Lieberburg, S. Little, E. Masliah, L. McConlogue, M. Montoya-Zavala, L. Mucke, L. Paganini, E. Penniman, M. Power, D. Schenk, P. Seubert, B. Snyder, F. Soriano, H. Tan, J. Vitale, S. Wadsworth, B. Wolozin, and J. Zhao. 1995. Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F β-amyloid precursor protein. Nature 373 (6514):523–527.
  • J. Ghiso, and B. Frangione. 2002. Amyloidosis and Alzheimer's disease. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 54 (12):1539–1551.
  • N. Goel, and T. L. Bale. 2007. Identifying early behavioral and molecular markers of future stress sensitivity. Endocrinology 148 (10):4585–4591.
  • R. Gold, C. Linington, and H. Lassmann. 2006. Understanding pathogenesis and therapy of multiple sclerosis via animal models: 70 years of merits and culprits in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis research. Brain 129 (Part 8):1953–1971.
  • J. P. Hanig, J. M. MorrisonJr., and S. Krop. 1972. Ethanol enhancement of blood-brain barrier permeability to catechol amines in chicks. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 18 (1):79–82.
  • E. S. Higuera, and Z. D. Luo. 2004. A rat pain model of vincristine-induced neuropathy. Methods Mol. Med. 99:91–98.
  • W. D. Hirst, T. O. Stean, D. C. Rogers, D. Sunter, P. Pugh, S. F. Moss, S. M. Bromidge, G. Riley, D. R. Smith, S. Bartlett, C. A. Heidbreder, A. R. Atkins, L. P Lacroix, L. A. Dawson, A. G. Foley, C. M. Regan, and N. Upton. 2006. SB-399885 is a potent, selective 5-HT6 receptor antagonist with cognitive enhancing properties in aged rat water maze and novel object recognition models. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 553 (1–3):109–119.
  • R. Hohlfeld, and H. Wekerle. 2001. Immunological update on multiple sclerosis. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 14 (3):299–304.
  • M. Hu, M. E. Schurdak, P. S. Puttfarcken, R. El Kouhen, M. Gopalakrishnan, and J. Li. 2007. High content screen microscopy analysis of Aβ.1–42-induced neurite outgrowth reduction in rat primary cortical neurons: Neuroprotective effects of α7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ligands. Brain Res. 1151:227–235.
  • In the treatment of mild to moderate dementia of Alzheimers Disease. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.razadyneer.com.
  • T. Ishiyama, K. Tokuda, T. Ishibashi, A. Ito, S. Toma, and Y. Ohno. 2007. Lurasidone (SM-13496), a novel atypical antipsychotic drug, reverses MK-801-induced impairment of learning and memory in the rat passive-avoidance test. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 572 (2–3):160–170.
  • Y. Jallouli, A. Paillard, J. Chang, E. Sevin, and D. Betbeder. 2007. Influence of surface charge and inner composition of porous nanoparticles to cross blood-brain barrier in vitro. Int. J. Pharm. 344 (1–2):103–109.
  • A. V. Kabanov, and H. E. Gendelman. 2007. Nanomedicine in the diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders. Prog. Polym. Sci. 32 (8–9):1054–1082.
  • J. P. Kelleher, F. Centorrino, M. J. Albert, and R. J. Baldessarini. 2002. Advances in atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of schizophrenia: New formulations and new agents. CNS Drugs 16 (4):249–261.
  • R. C. Kessler, K. A. McGonagle, S. Zhao, C. B. Nelson, M. Hughes, S. Eshleman, H. U. Wittchen, and K. S. Kendler. 1994. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51 (1):8–19.
  • B. C. Kieseier, and H. -P. Hartung. 2007. Interferon-β and neuroprotection in multiple sclerosis—facts, hopes and phantasies. Exp. Neurol. 203 (1):1–4.
  • S. H. Kim, and J. M. Chung. 1992. An experimental model for peripheral neuropathy produced by segmental spinal nerve ligation in the rat. Pain 50:355–363.
  • D. Kobiler, S. Lustig, Y. Gozes, D. Ben-Nathan, and Y. Akov. 1989. Sodium dodecyl sulfate induces a breach in the blood-brain barrier and enables a West Nile virus variant to penetrate into mouse brain. Brain Res. 496 (1–2):314–316.
  • B. K. Koe, A. Weissman, W. M. Welch, and R. G. Browne. 1983. Sertraline, 1S,4 Smethyl-4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-naphthylamine, a new uptake inhibitor with selectivity for serotonin. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 226 (3):686–700.
  • M. Koistinaho, and J. Koistinaho. 2005. Interactions between Alzheimer's disease and cerebral ischemia—focus on inflammation. Brain Res. Rev. 48 (2):240–250.
  • G. K. Kostopoulos. 2001. Involvement of the thalamocortical system in epileptic loss of consciousness. Epilepsia 42 (Suppl. 3):13–19.
  • N. O. Kozlova, I. B. Bruskovskaya, N. S. Melik-Nubarov, A. A. Yaroslavov, and V. A. Kabanov. 1999. Catalytic properties and conformation of hydrophobized .alpha.-chymotrypsin incorporated into a bilayer lipid membrane. FEBS Lett. 461 (3):141–144.
  • M. T. Krauze, R. Saito, C. Noble, J. Bringas, J. Forsayeth, T. R. Mcknight, J. Park, and K. S. Bankiewicz. 2005. Effects of the perivascular space on convection-enhanced delivery of liposomes in primate putamen. Exp. Neurol. 196 (1):104–111.
  • J. Kreuter. 2007. Nanoparticles—a historical perspective. Int. J. Pharm. 331 (1):1–10.
  • C. E. Krewson, M. L. Klarman, and W. M. Saltzman. 1995. Distribution of nerve growth factor following direct delivery to brain interstitium. Brain Res. 680 (1, 2):196–206.
  • V. Kumar, and G. S. Banker. 1996. Target-oriented drug delivery systemsIn G. S. Banker, and C. T. Rhodes (Eds.), Modern pharmaceutics (Vol. 72). New York: Marcel Dekker.
  • Y. -C. Kuo, and F. -L. Su. 2007. Transport of stavudine, delavirdine, and saquinavir across the blood-brain barrier by polybutylcyanoacrylate, methylmethacrylate sulfopropylmethacrylate, and solid lipid nanoparticles. Int. J. Pharm. 340 (1–2):143–152.
  • H. Kusuhara, and Y. Sugiyama. 2001a. Efflux transport systems for drugs at the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (Part 1). Drug Discovery Today 6 (3):150–156.
  • H. Kusuhara, and Y. Sugiyama. 2001b. Efflux transport systems for drugs at the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (Part 2). Drug Discov. Today 6 (4):206–212.
  • P. Kwan, and M. J. Brodie. 2000. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N. Engl. J. Med. 342 (5):314–319.
  • V. A. Levin. 1980. Relationship of octanol/water partition coefficient and molecular weight to rat brain capillary permeability. J. Med. Chem. 23 (6):682–684.
  • Lidoderm® (Lidocaine Path 5%)—Targets the Lingering Pain After the Shingles. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.lidoderm.com/.
  • J. A. Lieberman, S. Stroup, J. P. McEvoy, M. S. Swartz, R. A. Rosenheck, D. O. Perkins, R. S. Keefe, S. M. Davis, C. E. Davis, B. D. Lebowitz, J. Severe, J. K. Hsiao, and Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) Investigators. 2005. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (12):1209–1223.
  • C. -N. Liu, M. Devor, S. G. Waxman, and J. D. Kocsis. 2002. Subthreshold oscillations induced by spinal nerve injury in dissociated muscle and cutaneous afferents of mouse DRG. J. Neurophysiol. 87 (4):2009–2017.
  • X. Liu, and H. K. Gershenfeld. 2003. An exploratory factor analysis of the Tail Suspension Test in 12 inbred strains of mice and an F2 intercross. Brain Res. Bull. 60 (3):223–231.
  • C. Lopez-Rubalcava, and I. Lucki. 2000. Strain differences in the behavioural effects of antidepressant drugs in the rat forced swimming test. Neuropsychopharmacology 22:191–199.
  • I. Lucki, A. Dalvi, and A. J. Mayorga. 2001. Sensitivity to the effects of pharmacologically selective antidepressants in different strains of mice. Psychopharmacology 155 (3):315–322.
  • J. J. Luszczki, K. Jankiewicz, M. Jankiewicz, and S. J. Czuczwar. 2007. Influence of aminophylline on the anticonvulsive action of gabapentin in the mouse maximal electroshock seizure threshold model. J. Neural Transm. 114 (12):1539–1545.
  • S. F. Maier, and L. R. Watkins. 2005. Stressor controllability and learned helplessness: The roles of the dorsal raphe nucleus, serotonin, and corticotropin-releasing factor. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29 (4–5):829–841.
  • M. Malinge, M. Bourin, M. C. Colombel, and C. Larousse. 1988. Additive effects of clonidine and antidepressant drugs in the mouse forced-swimming test. Psychopharmacology 96 (1):104–109.
  • J. J. Mann. 2005. The medical management of depression. N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (17):1819–1834.
  • E. Masliah, A. Sisk, M. Mallory, L. Mucke, D. Schenk, and D. Games. 1996. Comparison of neurodegenerative pathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F .beta.-amyloid precursor protein and Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. 16 (18):5795–5811.
  • R. McArthur, and F. Borsini. 2006. Animal models of depression in drug discovery: A historical perspective. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 84 (3):436–452.
  • H. F. McFarland, and R. Martin. 2007. Multiple sclerosis: A complicated picture of autoimmunity. Nat. Immunol. 8 (9):913–919.
  • P. J. McKenna. 1987. Pathology, phenomenology and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 151:288–301.
  • F. W. H. M. Merkus, and M. P. van den Berg. 2007. Can nasal drug delivery bypass the blood-brain barrier? Questioning the direct transport theory. Drugs R D 8 (3):133–144.
  • G. Merlini, and V. Bellotti. 2003. Molecular Mechanisms of Amyloidosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 349 (6):583–596.
  • J. Mesens, M. E. Rickey, and T. J. Atkins. 2003. United States of America Patent No. US 6,544,559 B2. U. S. P. T. Office.
  • J. J. Miguel-Hidalgo, and G. Rajkowska. 2002. Morphological brain changes in depression: Can antidepressants reverse them?. CNS Drugs 16 (6):361–372.
  • E. Mogilnicka, A. Czyrak, and J. Maj. 1987. Dihydropyridine calcium channel antagonists reduce immobility in the mouse behavioral despair test; antidepressants facilitate nifedipine action. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 138 (3):413–416.
  • E. Mogilnicka, A. Czyrak, and J. Maj. 1988. BAY K 8644 enhances immobility in the mouse behavioral despair test, an effect blocked by nifedipine. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 151 (2):307–311.
  • Monotherapy Treatment for MS. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.tysabri.com/tysbProject/tysb.portal.
  • Namenda Alzheimer's Symptoms Treatment—Namenda.com. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.namenda.com.
  • W. E. Narrow, D. S. Rae, L. N. Robins, and D. A. Regier. 2002. Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States: Using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys' estimates. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59 (2):115–123.
  • Natalizumab (marketed as Tysabri) Information. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/natalizumab/default.htm.
  • E. A. Neuwelt. 2004. Mechanisms of disease: The blood–brain barrier. Neurosurgery 54 (1):131–142.
  • H. Ochi, M. Abraham, H. Ishikawa, D. Frenkel, K. Yang, A. S. Basso, H. Wu, M. L. Chen, R. Gandhi, A. Miller, R. Maron, and H. L. Weiner. 2006. Oral CD3-specific antibody suppresses autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inducing CD4+CD25-LAP+T cells. Nat. Med. 12 (6):627–635.
  • The Official ZYPREXA Olanzapine Site. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.zyprexa.com.
  • D. H. Overstreet, O. Pucilowski, A. H. Rezvani, and D. S. Janowsky. 1995. Administration of antidepressants, diazepam and psychomotor stimulants further confirms the utility of Flinders Sensitive Line rats as an animal model of depression. Psychopharmacology 121 (1):27–37.
  • W. M. Pardridge. 2002a. Targeting neurotherapeutic agents through the blood–brain barrier. Arch. Neurol. 59 (1):35–40.
  • W. M. Pardridge. 2002b. Why is the global CNS pharmaceutical market so under-penetrated?. Drug Discov. Today 7 (1):5–7.
  • W. M. Pardridge. 2007a. Blood-brain barrier delivery. Drug Discov. Today 12 (1/2):54–61.
  • W. M. Pardridge. 2007b. Drug targeting to the brain. Pharm. Res. 24 (9):1733–1744.
  • Paxil CR, an SSRI, treats depression, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, PMDD. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.paxilcr.com.
  • M. T. Peracchia, C. Vauthier, D. Desmaële, A. Gulik, J. -C. Dedieu, M. Demoy, J. d'Angelo, and P. Couvreur. 1998. PEGylated nanoparticles from a novel methoxypolyethylene glycol cyanoacrylate-hexadecyl cyanoacrylate amphiphilic copolymer. Pharm. Res. 15 (4):550–556.
  • Pharmaceutical Executive Staff. May, 2007. The Pharm Exec 50: Holding Pattern. Pharmaceutical Executive 98–110.
  • C. R. Pryce, D. Ruedi-Bettschen, A. C. Dettling, A. Weston, H. Russig, B. Ferger, and J. Feldon. 2005. Long-term effects of early-life environmental manipulations in rodents and primates: Potential animal models in depression research. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29 (4–5):649–674.
  • S. N. Raja, and J. A. Haythornthwaite. 2005. Combination therapy for neuropathic pain—which drugs, which combination, which patients?. N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (13):1373–1375.
  • R. M. Ransohoff. 2007. Natalizumab for multiple sclerosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 356 (25):2622–2629.
  • H. Rao, S. J. Gillihan, J. Wang, M. Korczykowski, G. M. V. Sankoorikal, K. A. Kaercher, E. S. Brodkin, J. A. Detre, and M. J. Farah. 2007. Genetic variation in serotonin transporter alters resting brain function in healthy individuals. Biol. Psychiatry 62 (6):600–606.
  • Rebif. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.mslifelines.com/rebif/index.jsp.
  • J. -P. Reneric, and I. Lucki. 1998. Antidepressant behavioral effects by dual inhibition of monoamine reuptake in the rat forced swimming test. Psychopharmacology 136 (2):190–197.
  • Risperdal. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.risperdal.com.
  • RISPERDAL CONSTA—For Healthcare Providers. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://risperdalconsta.com/risperdalconsta/hcp/index_hcp.html.
  • E. Rockenstein, L. Crews, and E. Masliah. 2007. Transgenic animal models of neurodegenerative diseases and their application to treatment development. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 59 (11):1093–1102.
  • C. Roney, P. Kulkarni, V. Arora, P. Antich, F. Bonte, A. Wu, N. N. Mallikarjuana, S. Manohar, H. F. Liang, A. R. Kulkarni, H. W. Sung, M. Sairam, and T. M. Aminabhavi. 2005. Targeted nanoparticles for drug delivery through the blood-brain barrier for Alzheimer's disease. J. Control. Release 108 (2–3):193–214.
  • T. M. Ross, P. M. Martinez, J. C. Renner, R. G. Thorne, L. R. Hanson, and W. H. Frey. 2004. Intranasal administration of interferon beta bypasses the blood-brain barrier to target the central nervous system and cervical lymph nodes: A non-invasive treatment strategy for multiple sclerosis. J. Neuroimmunol. 151 (1–2):66–77.
  • H. Sah, and B. -J. Lee. 2006. Development of new microencapsulation techniques useful for the preparation of PLGA microspheres. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 27 (21):1845–1851.
  • T. Sakane, M. Akizuki, S. Yamashita, T. Nadai, M. Hashida, and H. Sezaki. 1991. The transport of a drug to the cerebrospinal fluid directly from the nasal cavity: The relation to the lipophilicity of the drug. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 39 (9):2456–2458.
  • T. Sakane, C. Tanaka, A. Yamamoto, M. Hashida, H. Sesaki, H. Ueda, and H. Takagi. 1989. The effect of polysorbate 80 on brain uptake and analgesic effect of Dkyotorphin. Int. J. Pharm. 57 (1):77–83.
  • M. B. Sättler, I. Demmer, S. K. Williams, K. Maier, D. Merkler, I. Gadjanski, C. Stadelmann, M. Bähr, and R. Diem. 2006. Effects of interferon-beta-1a on neuronal survival under autoimmune inflammatory conditions. Exp. Neurol. 201 (1):172–181.
  • Schizophrenia and Bipolar Mania Treatment—Geodon. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.geodon.com/.
  • K. E. Schmader. 2002. Epidemiology and impact on quality of life of postherpetic neuralgia and painful diabetic neuropathy. Clin. J. Pain 18 (6):350–354.
  • D. Schmidt, and M. A. Rogawski. 2002. New strategies for the identification of drugs to prevent the development or progression of epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 50 (1–2):71–78.
  • J. Schmidt, J. M. Metselaar, M. H. M. Wauben, K. V. Toyka, G. Storm, and R. Gold. 2003. Drug targeting by long-circulating liposomal glucocorticosteroids increases therapeutic efficacy in a model of multiple sclerosis. Brain 126 (8):1895–1904.
  • Z. Seltzer, R. Dubner, and Y. Shir. 1990. A novel behavioral model of neuropathic pain disorders produced in rats by partial sciatic nerve injury. Pain 43 (205–218):205.
  • SEROQUEL—Home. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.seroquel.com.
  • N. Shi, and W. M. Pardridge. 2000. Noninvasive gene targeting to the brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97 (13):7567–7572.
  • N. Shi, Y. Zhang, C. Zhu, R. J. Boado, and W. M. Pardridge. 2001. Brain-specific expression of an exogenous gene after i.v. administration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98 (22):12754–12759.
  • G. A. Silva. 2007. Nanotechnology approaches for drug and small molecule delivery across the blood brain barrier. Surg. Neurol. 67 (2):113–116.
  • B. -W. Song, H. V. Vinters, D. Wu, and W. M. Pardridge. 2002. Enhanced neuroprotective effects of basic fibroblast growth factor in regional brain ischemia after conjugation to a blood-brain barrier delivery vector. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 301 (2):605–610.
  • C. Song, and B. E. Leonard. 2005. The olfactory bulbectomised rat as a model of depression. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29 (4–5):627–647.
  • A. Sood, J. W. Beach, S. J. Webster, A. V. Terry, and J. J. Buccafusco. 2007. The effects of JWB1–84-1 on memory-related task performance by amyloid A.beta. transgenic mice and by young and aged monkeys. Neuropharmacology 53 (5):588–600.
  • L. A. Stone, M. E. Smith, P. S. Albert, C. N. Bash, H. Maloni, J. A. Frank, and HF McFarland. 1995. Blood-brain barrier disruption on contrast-enhanced MRI in patients with mild relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: Relationship to course, gender, and age. Neurology 45 (6):1122–1126.
  • T. Sugawara, Y. Tsurubuchi, K. L. Agarwala, M. Ito, G. Fukuma, E. Mazaki-Miyazaki, H. Nagafuji, M. Noda, K. Imoto, K. Wada, A. Mitsudome, S. Kaneko, M. Montal, K. Nagata, S. Hirose, and K. Yamakawa. 2001. A missense mutation of the Na+ channel alpha II subunit gene Na(v)1.2 in a patient with febrile and afebrile seizures causes channel dysfunction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98 (11):6384–6389.
  • H. T. Swainston, and L, G. K. 2004. Long-acting risperidone: A review of its use in schizophrenia. CNS Drugs 18 (2):113–132.
  • K. Tanja, L. Gueanelle, B. Andreas, S. Jana, and B. Wolfgang. 2002. Acute axonal damage in multiple sclerosis is most extensive in early disease stages and decreases over time. Brain 125 (Part 10):2202–2212.
  • M. E. Thase. 2007. Molecules That mediate mood. N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (23):2400–2402.
  • D. Tischner, A. Weishaupt, J. van den Brandt, N. Müller, N. Beyersdorf, C. W. Ip, K. V. Toyka, T. Hünig, R. Gold, T. Kerkau, and H. M. Reichardt. 2006. Polyclonal expansion of regulatory T cells interferes with effector cell migration in a model of multiple sclerosis. Brain 129 (Part 10):2635–2647.
  • C. Tober, A. Rostock, C. Rundfeldt, and R. Bartsch. 1996. D-23129: A potent anticonvulsant in the amygdala kindling model of complex partial seizures. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 303 (3):163–169.
  • Treatment for Depression and Anxiety: Lexapro (Escilatopram Oxalate) Medication. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.lexapro.com.
  • Treatment for Depression and Anxiety—Zoloft.com. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.zoloft.com.
  • N. M. van Veelen, and R. S. Kahn. 1999. Dopamine, serotonin, and schizophrenia. Adv. Neurol. 80:425–429.
  • T. K. Vyas, A. K. Babbar, R. K. Sharma, S. Singh, and A. Misra. 2006. Intranasal mucoadhesive microemulsions of clonazepam: Preliminary studies on brain targeting. J. Pharm. Sci. 95 (3):570–580.
  • R. H. Wallace, D. W. Wang, R. Singh, I. E. Scheffer, A. L. GeorgeJr., H. A. Phillips, K. Saar, A. Reis, E. W. Johnson, G. R. Sutherland, S. F. Berkovic, and J. C. Mulley. 1998. Febrile seizures and generalized epilepsy associated with a mutation in the Na+-channel .β1 subunit gene SCN1B. Nat. Genet. 19 (4):366–370.
  • A. Wassef, J. Baker, and L. D. Kochan. 2003. GABA and schizophrenia: A review of basic science and clinical studies. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 23 (6):601–640.
  • D. R. Weinberger. 1987. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44 (7):660–669.
  • Welcome to the official site of LYRICA—Find more information about Nerve Pain, DPN, PHN and P. Retrieved January 1, 2008, 2008, from http://www.lyrica.com.
  • H. S. White. 2003. Preclinical development of antiepileptic drugs: Past, present, and future directions. Epilepsia 44 (Suppl. 7):2–8.
  • H. S. White, H. H. Wolf, J. H. Woodhead, and H. J. Kupferberg. 1998. The National Institutes of Health Anticonvulsant Drug Development Program: Screening for efficacy. Adv. Neurol. 76:29–39.
  • P. Willner. 2005. Chronic mild stress (CMS) revisited: Consistency and behavioural-neurobiological concordance in the effects of CMS. Neuropsychobiology 52 (2):90–110.
  • D. S. Wishart, C. Knox, A. C. Guo, S. Shrivastava, M. Hassanali, P. Stothard, Z. Chang, and J. Woolsey. 2006. DrugBank: A comprehensive resource for in silico drug discovery and exploration. Nucleic Acids Res. 34:D668–D672.
  • M. S. Wolfe. 2001. Secretase targets for Alzheimer's disease: Identification and therapeutic potential. J. Med. Chem. 44 (13):2039–2060.
  • C. J. Woolf. 2004. Dissecting out mechanisms responsible for peripheral neuropathic pain: Implications for diagnosis and therapy. Life Sci. 74 (21):2605–2610.
  • S. -I. Yokoyama, N. Ohishi, M. Shamoto, Y. Watanabe, and K. Yagi. 1997. Isolation and expression of rat interferon-β gene and growth-inhibitory effect of its expression on rat glioma cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 232 (3):698–701.
  • V. W. Yong, F. Giuliani, M. Xue, A. Bar-Or, and L. M. Metz. 2007. Experimental models of neuroprotection relevant to multiple sclerosis. Neurology 68 (Suppl. 3):S32–S37.
  • T. Ziemssen. 2005. Modulating processes within the central nervous system is central to therapeutic control of multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. 252 (Suppl. 5): V/38–V/45.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.