Beyond WASH: Testing Additional Connections Between Household Water Insecurity and Child Nutrition Outcomes in Multi-Country Contexts

References

• Aderman, H., and H. Derek. 2018. The timing of growth faltering has important implications for observational analyses of the underlying determinants of nutrition outcomes. Public Library of Science ONE 13 (4):e0195904. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195904.
   Google Scholar
• Adhikari, R. P., M. L. Shrestha, A. Acharya, et al. 2019. Determinants of stunting among children aged 0–59 months in Nepal: Findings from Nepal Demographic and health Survey, 2006, 2011, and 2016. BMC Nutrition 5 (1). doi:10.1186/s40795-019-0300-0.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahmad, I., N. Khalique, S. Khalil, M. M. Urfi, and M. Maroof. 2018. Dietary Diversity and Stunting among Infants and Young Children: A Cross-sectional Study in Aligarh. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine 43 (1):34–36. doi:10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_382_16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahmed, T., M. Hossain, and K. I. Sanin. 2012. Global burden of maternal and child undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 61 (Suppl. 1):8–17. doi:10.1159/000345165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, U., I. L. Ying, M. K. Bashir, M. Abid, and F. Zulfiqar. 2017. Status and determinants of small farming households’ food security and role of market access in enhancing food security in rural Pakistan. Public Library of Science ONE 12 (10):e0185466. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185466.
   Google Scholar
• Albalak, R., U. Ramakrishnan, A. D. Stein, F. Van der Haar, D. Schroeder, R. Martorell, M. J. Haber. 2000. Co-occurrence of nutrition problems in Honduran children. J Nutrients 130 (9):2271–73. American Journal of Human Biology, 31(3): 1042-0533. 10.1093/jn/130.9.2271.
   Google Scholar
• Asresie, M. B., A. F. Gedefaw, and G. W. Dagnew. 2020. Determinants of Anemia among Children Aged 6–59 Months in Ethiopia: Further Analysis of the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey. Advances in Public Health 2020 (Article ID 3634591):6. doi:10.1155/2020/3634591.
   Google Scholar
• Brewis, A., N. Choudhary, and A. Wutich. 2019. Low Water Access and Food Insecurity as Gendered Physiological Stressors: Blood Pressure Evidence from Nepal. American Journal of Human Biology 31 (3):1–10. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23234.
   Google Scholar
• Brewis, A., B. Piperata, A. L. Thompson, and A. Wutich. 2020. Localizing resource insecurities: A biocultural perspective on water and wellbeing. WIREs Water 7 (4):e1440. doi:10.1002/wat2.1440.
   Google Scholar
• Brewis, A., C. Workman, A. Wutich, W. Jepson, and S. Young. 2020. Household water insecurity is strongly associated with food insecurity: Evidence from 27 sites in low‐and middle‐income countries. American Journal of Human Biology 32 (1):e23309. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewis, A., C. Workman, A. Wutich, W. Jepson, S. Young, and Household Water Insecurity Experiences – Research Coordination Network (HWISE-RCN). 2020. Household water insecurity is strongly associated with food insecurity: Evidence from 27 sites in low- and middle-income countries. American Journal of Human Biology 32 (1):e23309. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castejon, H. V., P. Ortega, D. Amaya, G. Gomez, J. Leal, and O. J. Castejon. 2013. Co-existence of anemia, Vitamin a deficiency and growth retardation among children 24- 84 months old in Maracaibo, Venezuela. Nutritional Neuroscience 7 (2):113–19. doi:10.1080/10284150410001704534.
   Google Scholar
• Chase, C., A. Bahuguna, Y. Chen, et al. 2019. Water and Nutrition: A Framework for Action. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhary, N., R. Schuster, A. Brewis, and A. Wutich. 2020. Water insecurity potentially undermines dietary diversity of children aged 6–23 months: Evidence from India. Maternal & Child Nutrition 16 (2):e12929. doi:10.1111/mcn.12929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choudhary, N., R. C. Schuster, A. Brewis, and A. Wutich. 2021. Household water insecurity affects child nutrition through alternative pathways to WASH: Evidence from India. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 42 (2):170–87. doi:10.1177/0379572121998122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, S. M., P. O. Mbullo, J. D. Miller, G. O. Boateng, P. Wekesa, M. Onono, and S. L. Young. 2019. ‘I know how stressful it is to lack water!’ Exploring the lived experiences of household water insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in western Kenya. Global Public Health 14 (5):649–62. doi:10.1080/17441692.2018.1521861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croft, T. N., M. Aileen, K. C. Marshall, et al. 2018. Guide to DHS Statistics. Rockville, (MD), USA: ICF.
   Google Scholar
• Cumming, O., B. F. Arnold, R. Ban, T. Clasen, J. E. Mills, M. C. Freeman, B. Gordon, R. Guiteras, G. Howard, P. R. Hunter, et al. 2019. The implications of three major new trials for the effect of water, sanitation and hygiene on childhood diarrhea and stunting: A consensus statement. BMC Medicine 17 (1):173. doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1410-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cumming, O., and S. Cairncross. 2016. Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications. Maternal & Child Nutrition 12 (S1):91–105. doi:10.1111/mcn.12258.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• da Silva, L. L. S., W. W. Fawzi, and M. A. Cardoso. 2018. Factors associated with anemia in young children in Brazil. Public Library of Science ONE 13 (9):e0204504.
   Google Scholar
• Dewey, K. G. 2013. The Challenge of Meeting Nutrient Needs of Infants and Young Children during the Period of Complementary Feeding: An Evolutionary Perspective. The Journal of Nutrition 143 (12):2050–54. doi:10.3945/jn.113.182527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahim, S. M., S. Das, K. I. Sanin, M. A. Gazi, M. M. Islam, T. Ahmed, and T. Ahmed. 2018. Association of Fecal Markers of Environmental Enteric Dysfunction with Zinc and Iron Status among Children at First Two Years of Life in Bangladesh. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 99 (2):489–94. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan, Y., J. Chen, G. Shirkey, R. John, S. R. Wu, H. Park, and C. Shao. 2016. Applications of structural equation modeling (SEM) in ecological studies: An updated review. Ecological Processes 5 (1). doi:10.1186/s13717-016-0063-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fançony, C., Â. Soares, J. Lavinha, H. Barros, and M. Brito. 2021. Effectiveness of Nutrition and WASH/malaria educational community-based interventions in reducing anemia in children from Angola. Scientific Reports 11 (1):5603. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85006-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feleke, B. E., A. Derbie, Y. Zenebe, D. Mekonnen, T. Hailu, B. Tulu, Y. Adem, F. Bereded, and F. Biadglegne. 2017. Burden and Determinant Factors of Anemia Among Elementary School Children in Northwest Ethiopia: A Comparative Cross Sectional Study. African Journal of Infectious Diseases 12 (1):1–6. doi:10.21010/ajid.v12i1.1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fewtrell, L., A. Pruss-Ustun, R. G. Bos, and J. Bartram. 2007. Water, sanitation and hygiene: Quantifying the health impact at national and local levels in countries with incomplete water supply and sanitation coverage. In Environmental Burden of Disease Series,15. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Fink, G., I. Günther, and K. Hill. 2011. The effect of water and sanitation on child health: Evidence from the demographic and health surveys 1986–2007. International Journal of Epidemiology 40 (5):1196–204. doi:10.1093/ije/dyr102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, Y., J. Sheng, X. Mi, M. Zhou, S. Zou, and H. Zhou. 2022. Household Water Access, Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status among Preschoolers in Poor, Rural Areas of Central and Western China. Nutrients 14 (3):458. doi:10.3390/nu14030458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasparinho, C., M. H. Gonçalves, A. Chissaque, G. L. Silva, F. Fortes, and L. Gonçalves. 2022. Wasting, Stunting, and Anemia in Angolan Children after Deworming with Albendazole or a Test-and-Treat Approach for Intestinal Parasites: Binary Longitudinal Models with Temporal Structure in a Four-Arm Randomized Trial. Nutrients 14 (11):2185. doi:10.3390/nu14112185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaston, R. T., F. Habyarimana, and S. Ramroop. 2022. Joint modelling of anaemia and stunting in children less than five years of age in Lesotho: A cross-sectional case study. BMC Public Health 22 (1):285. doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12690-3. PMID: 35148690; PMCID: PMC8840695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gebremeskel, M. G., A. Mulugeta, A. Bekele, L. Lemma, M. Gebremichael, H. Gebremedhin, et al. 2020. Individual and community level factors associated with anemia among children 6—59 months of age in Ethiopia: A further analysis of 2016 Ethiopia demographic and health survey. Public Library of Science ONE 15 (11):e0241720. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241720.
   Google Scholar
• Geere, J.-A., and M. Cortobius. 2017. Who Carries the Weight of Water? Fetching Water in Rural and Urban Areas and the Implications for Water Security. Water Alternatives 10 (2):513–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson, R., E. Ferguson, and J. Lehrfeld. 1998. Complementary foods for infant feeding in developing countries: Their nutrient adequacy and improvement. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52 (10):764–70. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuffrida, A., F. R. Iunes, and W. D. Savedoff. 2005. Health and Poverty in Brazil: Estimation by Structural Equation Model with Latent Variables. In Technical Note on Health No. 1/2005. (WA) DC: Inter-American Development Bank. https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Health-and-Poverty-in-Brazil-Estimation-by-Structural-Equation-Model-with-Latent-Variables.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gosdin, L., R. Martorell, R. M. Bartolini, R. Mehta, S. Srikantiah, and M. F. Young. 2018. The co-occurrence of anaemia and stunting in young children. Maternal Child Nutrition 14 (3):e12597, Jul. doi:10.1111/mcn.12597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimes, J. E. T., G. Tadesse, I. A. Gardiner, E. Yard, Y. Wuletaw, et al. 2017. Sanitation, hookworm, anemia, stunting, and wasting in primary school children in southern Ethiopia: Baseline results from a study in 30 schools. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 11 (10):e0005948. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatami, H. 2013. Importance of Water and Water-Borne Diseases: On the Occasion of the World Water Day. International Journal of Prev Med 4 (3):243–45, March.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heidkamp, R. A., E. Piwoz, S. Gillespie, E. C. Keats, M. R. D’Alimonte, P. Menon, J. K. Das, A. Flory, J. W. Clift, M. T. Ruel, et al. 2021. Mobilising evidence, data, and resources to achieve global maternal and child undernutrition targets and the Sustainable Development Goals: An agenda for action. Lancet 397 (10282):1400–18. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00568-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HLPE. 2015. Water for Food Security and Nutrition, a Report by the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome: FAO.
   Google Scholar
• Howard, G., and J. Bartram. 2003. Domestic water quantity, service level and health. World Health Organization WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600645.
   Google Scholar
• Humphrey, J. H., M. N. Mbuya, R. Ntozini, L. H. Moulton, R. J. Stoltzfus, N. V. Tavengwa, K. Mutasa, F. Majo, B. Mutasa, G. Mangwadu, et al. 2019. Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene, and improved complementary feeding, on child stunting and anaemia in rural Zimbabwe: A cluster-randomised trial. The Lancet Global Health 7 (1):e132–47. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30374-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, W. 1923. Translation of Hippocrates’ Air, Waters and Places. London: Heineman.
   Google Scholar
• Kawo, K. N., G. A. Zeytu, and N. Yohannes. 2018. Multilevel Analysis of Determinants of Hindawi Prevalence among Children Aged 6–59 Months in Ethiopia: Classical and Bayesian Approaches. Anemia 2018:1–13. doi:10.1155/2018/3087354.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, J. R., N. Awan, and F. Misu. 2016. Determinants of anemia among 6–59 months aged children in Bangladesh: Evidence from nationally representative data. BMC Pediatrics 16 (1):3. doi:10.1186/s12887-015-0536-z.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kher, J., S. A. G. Aggarwal, and G. Punhani. 2015. Vulnerability of Poor Urban Women to climate-linked water insecurities at the household level: A case study of slums in Delhi. Indian Journal of Gender Studies 22 (1):15–40. doi:10.1177/0971521514556943.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotecha, P. V. 2011. Nutritional anemia in young children with focus on Asia and India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine 36 (1):8–16. doi:10.4103/0970-0218.80786.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kothari, M. T., A. Coile, A. Huestis, T. Pullum, et al. 2019. Exploring associations between water, sanitation, and anemia through 47 nationally representative demographic and health surveys. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1450 (1):249–67. doi:10.1111/nyas.14109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen, D. A., T. Grisham, E. Slawsky, and L. Narine. 2017. An individual‐level meta‐analysis assessing the impact of community‐level sanitation access on child stunting, anemia, and diarrhea: Evidence from DHS and MICS surveys. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 11 (6):e0005591. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefcheck, J. 2019. Structural Equation Modelling in R for Ecology and Evolution. Online book. https://jslefche.github.io/sem_book/.
   Google Scholar
• Luby, S. P., M. Rahman, B. F. Arnold, L. Unicomb, S. Ashraf, P. J. Winch, C. P. Stewart, F. Begum, F. Hussain, J. Benjamin-Chung, et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Bangladesh: A cluster randomized controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health 6 (3):e302–15. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30490-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mabhaudhi, T., T. Chibarabada, and A. Modi. 2016. Water-food-nutrition-health nexus: Linking water to improving food, nutrition and health in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13 (1):107. doi:10.3390/ijerph13010107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marques, R. F. S. V., J. A. A. C. Taddei, F. A. Lopez, and J. A. P. Braga. 2014. Breastfeeding exclusively and iron deficiency anemia during the first 6 months of age. Revista Da Associação Médica Brasileira 60 (1):18–22. doi:10.1590/1806-9282.60.01.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, L. R. 2015. Beyond improved access: Seasonal and multidimensional water security in urban Philippines. Global Social Welfare 2 (3):119–28. doi:10.1007/s40609-014-0024-7.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, J. D., C. L. Workman, S. V. Panchang, G. Sneegas, E. A. Adams, S. L. Young, and A. L. Thompson. 2021. Water Security and Nutrition: Current Knowledge and Research Opportunities. Water Security and Nutrition: Current Knowledge and Research Opportunities. 12 (6):2525–39. doi:10.1093/advances/nmab075.
   Google Scholar
• Mohammed, S. H., B. Larijani, and A. Esmaillzadeh. 2019. Concurrent anemia and stunting in young children: Prevalence, dietary and non- dietary associated factors. Nutrition Journal 18 (10):1–10. doi:10.1186/s12937-019-0436-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moschovis, P. P., M. O. Wiens, L. Arlington, O. Antsygina, D. Hayden, W. Dzik, J. P. Kiwanuka, D. C. Christiani, and P. L. Hibberd. 2018. Individual, maternal and household risk factors for anaemia among young children in sub-Saharan Africa: A cross- sectional study. British Medical Journal Open 8 (5):e019654. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutasa, K., N. R, M. M. N. Mbuya, M. S. G. Rukobo, F. D. Majo, N. Tavengwa, L. E. Smith, L. Caulfield, J. R. Swann, R. J. Stoltzfus, et al. 2021. Biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction are not consistently associated with linear growth velocity in rural Zimbabwean infants. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 113 (5):1185–98. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mutasa, K., J. Tome, S. Rukobo, M. Govha, P. Mushayanembwa, F. S. Matimba, C. K. Chiorera, F. D. Majo, N. V. Tavengwa, B. Mutasa, et al. 2022. Stunting Status and Exposure to Infection and Inflammation in Early Life Shape Antibacterial Immune Cell Function Among Zimbabwean Children. Frontiers in Immunology 13:1–16. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.899296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Null, C., C. P. Stewart, A. J. Pickering, H. N. Dentz, B. F. Arnold, C. D. Arnold, J. Benjamin-Chung, T. Clasen, K. G. Dewey, L. C. H. Fernald, et al. 2018. Effects of water quality, sanitation, handwashing, and nutritional interventions on diarrhoea and child growth in rural Kenya: A cluster randomized controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health 6 (3):e316–29. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30005-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orsango, A. Z., E. Loha, B. Lindtjørn, and I. M. S. Engebretsen. 2021. Co-morbid anaemia and stunting among children 2–5 years old in southern Ethiopia: A community-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Paediatrics Open 5 (1):e001039. doi:10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001039.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pasqualino, M., L. Andrew, M. Thorne-Lyman, S. Manohar, K. C. Angela, B. Shrestha, R. Adhikari, and R. D. Klemm. 2021. The Risk Factors for Child Anemia Are Consistent across 3 National Surveys in Nepal. Current Developments in Nutrition 5 (6):nzab079. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzab079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasricha, S. R., J. Black, S. Muthayya, A. Shet, V. Bhat, S. Nagaraj, N. S. Prashanth, H. Sudarshan, B.-A. Biggs, and A. S. Shet. 2010. Determinants of anemia among young children in rural India. Pediatrics 126 (1):e140–49. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-3108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelletier, D. L., E. A. Frongillo, D. G. Schroeder, and J. P. Habichit. 1995. The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 73 (4):443–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickering, A. J., C. Null, P. J. Winch, G. Mangwadu, B. F. Arnold, A. J. Prendergast, S. M. Njenga, M. Rahman, R. Ntozini, J. Benjamin-Chung, et al. 2019. The WASH Benefits and SHINE trials: Interpretation of WASH intervention effects on linear growth and diarrhoea. The Lancet Global Health 7 (8):e1139–46. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30268-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prüss, A., D. Kay, L. Fewtrell, and J. Bartram. 2002. Estimating the burden of disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at a global level. Environmental Health Perspectives 110 (5):537–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.02110537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman, M. S., M. Mushfiquee, M. S. Masud, T. Howlader, and S. Adu-Afarwuah. 2019. Association between malnutrition and anemia in under-five children and women of reproductive age: Evidence from Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Public Library of Science ONE 14 (7):e0219170. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219170.
   Google Scholar
• Roba, K. T., T. P. O’Connor, T. Belachew, and N. M. O’Brien. 2016. Anemia and undernutrition among children aged 6–23 months in two agroecological zones of rural Ethiopia. Pediatric Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 7:131–40. doi:10.2147/PHMT.S109574.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roesler, A. L., L. G. Smithers, P. Wangpakapattanawong, and V. Moore. 2019. Stunting, dietary diversity and household food insecurity among children under 5 years in ethnic communities of northern Thailand. Journal of Public Health 41 (4):772–80. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdy201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosegrant, M. 2019. Food security depends on water security – and we need to act now. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/food-security-depends-water-security-–-and-we-need-act-now.
   Google Scholar
• Rosinger, A. 2015. Dehydration among lactating mothers in the Amazon: A neglected problem. American Journal of Human Biology 27 (4):576–78. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosinger, A. Y., and S. L. Young. 2020. The toll of household water insecurity on health and human biology: Current understandings and future directions. WIREs Water 7 (6):e1468. doi:10.1002/wat2.1468.
   Google Scholar
• Ruel, M. T., K. H. Brown, and L. E. Caulfield. 2003. Moving forward with complementary feeding: Indicators and research priorities: International food policy research institute (IFPRI) discussion paper 146. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 24 (3):289–90. doi:10.1177/156482650302400310.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rutstein, S. O., and K. Johnson. 2004. The DHS wealth index. DHS comparative reports no. 6. Calverton: ORC Macro.
   Google Scholar
• Schuster, R. C., M. S. Butler, A. Wutich, et al. 2020. “If there is no water, we cannot feed our children”: The far-reaching consequences of water insecurity on infant feeding practices and infant health across 16 low- and middle-income countries. American Journal of Human Biology 32 (1). doi:10.1002/ajhb.23357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharman, A. 2000. Anemia testing in population-based surveys: General information and guidelines for country monitors and program managers. Calverton, MD usa: ORC Macro.
   Google Scholar
• Soares, M. R. J., A. C. A. Clements, and A. M. Noor. 2011. Mapping the Risk of Anaemia in Preschool-Age Children: The Contribution of Malnutrition, Malaria, and Helminth Infections in West Africa. PLOS Medicine 8 (6):e1000438. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soares, M. R., A. Langa, J. M. Pedro, J. C. Sousa-Figueiredo, A. C. Clements, and S. V. Nery. 2013. Role of malnutrition and parasite infections in the spatial variation in children’s anaemia risk in northern Angola. Geospatial Health 7 (2):341–54, May. doi:10.4081/gh.2013.91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson, M. T., R. L. Holbert, and R. S. Zimmerman. 2006. On the Use of Structural Equation Modelling in Health Communication Research. Health Communication 20 (2):159–67. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2002_7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, C. P., K. G. Dewey, A. Lin, A. J. Pickering, K. A. Byrd, K. Jannat, S. Ali, G. Rao, H. N. Dentz, M. Kiprotich, et al. 2019. Effects of lipid-based nutrient supplements and infant and young child feeding counseling with or without improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) on anemia and micronutrient status: Results from 2 cluster-randomized trials in Kenya and Bangladesh. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 109 (1):148–64. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, C. P., L. Iannotti, K. G. Dewey, K. F. Michaelsen, and A. W. Onyango. 2013. Contextualising complementary feeding in a broader framework for stunting prevention. Maternal & Child Nutrition 9 (S2):27–45. doi:10.1111/mcn.12088.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadesse, A. W., E. C. Hemler, C. Andersen, S. Passarelli, A. Worku, C. R. Sudfeld, Y. Berhane, and W. W. Fawzi. 2019. Anemia prevalence and etiology among women, men, and children in Ethiopia: A study protocol for a national population-based survey. BMC Public Health 19 (1):1369. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7647-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tesema, G. A., M. G. Worku, Z. T. Tessema, A. B. Teshale, A. Z. Alem, Y. Yeshaw, et al. 2021. Prevalence and determinants of severity levels of anemia among children aged 6–59 months in sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel ordinal logistic regression analysis. Public Library of Science ONE 16 (4):e0249978. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249978.
   Google Scholar
• Tofail, F., L. C. Fernald, D. Kk, M. Rahman, T. Ahmed, K. K. Jannat, L. Unicomb, B. F. Arnold, S. Ashraf, P. J. Winch, et al. 2018. Effect of water quality, sanitation, hand washing, and nutritional interventions on child development in rural Bangladesh (WASH Benefits Bangladesh): A cluster-randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 2 (4):255–68. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30031-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Torlesse, H., A. A. Cronin, S. K. Sebayang, et al. 2016. Determinants of stunting in Indonesian children: Evidence from a cross-sectional survey indicate a prominent role for the water, sanitation and hygiene sector in stunting reduction. BMC Public Health 16 (1). doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3339-8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Troeger, C., B. F. Blacker, I. A. Khalil, P. C. Rao, S. Cao, S. R. Zimsen, S. B. Albertson, J. D. Stanaway, A. Deshpande, Z. Abebe, et al. 2018. Estimates of the global, regional, and national morbidity, mortality, and aetiologies of diarrhoea in 195 countries: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 18 (11):1211–28. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30362-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, S. F., et al. 2014. Iron Deficiency Anemia in Predominantly Breastfed Young Children. Pediatrics and Neonatology 55 (6):466–69. doi:10.1016/j.pedneo.2014.02.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNESCO. 2012. Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk, the United Nations World Water Development Report 4, vol. 1. Peris.
   Google Scholar
• Venkataramanan, V., J.-A. L. Geere, B. Thomae, J. Stoler, P. R. Hunter, S. L. Young, and HWISE-RCN. 2020. In pursuit of ‘safe’ water: The burden of personal injury from water fetching in 21 low-income and middle-income countries. BMJ Global Health 5 (10):e003328. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visser, M., T. Van Zyl, S. M. Hanekom, J. Baumgartner, M. van der Hoeven, C. Taljaard-Krugell, C. M. Smuts, and M. Faber. 2021. Associations of dietary diversity with anaemia and iron status among 5- to 12-year-old schoolchildren in South Africa. Public Health Nutrition 24 (9):2554–62. doi:10.1017/S1368980020000543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vyas, S., and L. Kumaranayake. 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: How to use principal components analysis, 459-468 Oxford University Press in association with the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. doi:10.1093/heapol/czl029.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, B., P. Wu, B. Kwan, X. M. Tu, and C. Feng. 2018. Simpson’s Paradox: Examples. Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry 30 (2):139–43. doi:10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.218026.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang, J.-Y., P.-J. Hu, L. Dong-Mei, D. Bin, M. Yinghua, D. Jie, S. Yi, M. Jun, and W. L. Patrick. 2020. Reducing Anemia Among School-Aged Children in China by Eliminating the Geographic Disparity and Ameliorating Stunting: Evidence from a National Survey. Frontiers in Pediatrics 8. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.00193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler, T., and J. Braun. 2013. Climate change impacts on global food security. Science 341 (6145):508–13. doi:10.1126/science.1239402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. 2007. Indicators for assessing Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices: Conclusion of a consensus meeting. (WA) DC: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2010. Interpretation Guide, Nutrition Landscape Information System: Country profile indicators. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44397/9789241599955_eng.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2017. Global Nutrition Monitoring Framework: Operational guidance for tracking progress in meeting targets for 2025. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• WHO/UNICEF. 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation: Joint Monitoring Programme Update. World Health Organization, UNICEF.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, J., A. Prüss‐Ustün, O. Cumming, J. Bartram, S. Bonjour, S. Cairncross, T. Clasen, J. M. Colford, V. Curtis, J. De France, et al. 2014. Systematic review: Assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low‐and middle‐income settings: Systematic review and meta‐regression. Tropical Medicine & International Health 19 (8):928–42. doi:10.1111/tmi.12331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodruff, B. A., J. P. Wirth, I. Ngnie-Teta, J. M. Beaulière, D. Mamady, M. A. Ayoya, and F. Rohne. 2018. Determinants of stunting, wasting, and anemia in Guinean preschool-age children: An analysis of DHS data from 1999, 2005, and 2012. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 39 (1):39–53. doi:10.1177/0379572117743004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wutich, A., and A. Brewis. 2014. Food, water, and scarcity: Toward a broader anthropology of resource insecurity. Current Anthropology 55 (4):444–68. doi:10.1086/677311.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wutich, A., A. Brewis, and A. Tsai. 2020. Water and mental health. WIREs Water 7 (5):e1416. doi:10.1002/wat2.1461.
   Google Scholar
• Young, S. 2021. Viewpoint: The measurement of water access and use is key for more effective food and nutrition policy. Food Policy 104:1021–38. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, E. X., O. Y. Addo, A. M. Williams, R. Engle-Stone, J. Ou, W. Huang, J. Guo, P. S. Suchdev, and M. F. Young. 2020. Association between anemia and household water source or sanitation in preschool children: The Biomarkers Reflecting Inflammation and Nutritional Determinants of Anemia (BRINDA) project. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 112 (Supplement 1):488S–S497S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa148.
   Google Scholar