Invisible capital: The contribution of communal rangelands to rural livelihoods in South Africa

References

• Agrawal , A . 1997 . Community in conservation: beyond enchantment and disenchantment , Gainesville : Conservation and Development Forum .
   Google Scholar
• Ainslie , A , Cinderby , S , Petse , T , Ntshona , Z , Bradley , PN , Deshingkar , P and Fakir , S . 1997 . Rural livelihoods and local level natural resource management in Peddie District , Institute of Social and Economic Research Grahamstown : Rhodes University .
   Google Scholar
• Ardington , E and Lund , F . 1996 . “ Questioning rural livelihoods ” . In Land, labour and livelihoods in rural South Africa. Vol. 2: KwaZulu‐Natal and Northern Province , Edited by: Lipton , M , Ellis , F and Lipton , M . Durban : Indicator .
   Google Scholar
• Arntzen , J . 1998 . Economic valuation of communal rangelands in Botswana: a case study , Working Paper No 17, Collaborative Research on the Economics of Environment and Development (Creed) London and Amsterdam : International Institute for Environment and Development, and Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit .
   Google Scholar
• Barrett , JC . 1992 . The economic role of cattle in communal farming systems in Zimbabwe , Pastoral Development Network Paper No 32b London : Overseas Development Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein , H . 1992 . “ Poverty and the poor ” . In Rural livelihoods: crises and responses , Edited by: Bernstein , H , Crow , B and Johnson , H . Oxford : Oxford University Press and The Open University .
   Google Scholar
• Braber , R . 1996 . “ Current livelihoods in semi‐arid rural areas of South Africa ” . In Land, labour and livelihoods in rural South Africa. Vol 2: KwaZulu‐Natal and Northern Province , Edited by: Lipton , M , Ellis , F and Lipton , M . Durban : Indicator .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , BM , ed. 1996 . The miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa , Bogor, , Indonesia : Centre for International Forestry Research .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , BM , Luckert , M and Scoones , I . 1997 . Local‐level valuation of savannah resources: a case study from Zimbabwe . Economic Botany , 51 (1) : 59 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter , M and May , J . Poverty, livelihood and class in rural South Africa . Paper prepared for conference on ‘Poverty and rural livelihoods’ . January 13‐5 , Johannesburg. Land and Agriculture Policy Centre .
   Google Scholar
• Chambers , R . 1997 . Whose reality counts? Putting the first last , London : Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) .
   Google Scholar
• Clarke , J , Cavendish , W and Coote , C . 1996 . “ Rural households and miombo, woodlands: use, value and management ” . In The Miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa , Edited by: Campbell , BM . Bogor, , Indonesia : Centre for International Forestry Research .
   Google Scholar
• Cousins , B . 1996a . Livestock production and common property struggles in South Africa's agrarian reform . Journal of Peasant Studies , 23 (2/3) : 166 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cousins , B . Range management and land reform policy in post‐apartheid South Africa, Vol II . Proceedings of the 5th International Rangeland Congress . Denver. Society for Range Management .
   Google Scholar
• Cousins , B . 1997 . How do rights become real? Formal and informal institutions in South Africa's land reform . Institute for Development Studies Bulletin , 28 (4) : 59 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crehan , K . 1992 . “ Rural households: making a living ” . In Rural livelihoods: crises and responses , Edited by: Bernstein , H , Crow , B and Johnson , H . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cross , C , Luckin , L , Mzimela , T and Clark , C . 1996 . “ On the edge: poverty, livelihoods and natural resources in rural KwaZulu‐Natal ” . In Land, labour and livelihoods in rural South Africa. Vol 2: KwaZulu‐Natal and Northern Province , Edited by: Lipton , M , Ellis , F and Lipton , M . Durban : Indicator .
   Google Scholar
• Department of Land Affairs . 1998 . Tenure Newsletter , 2 (1)
   Google Scholar
• Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) . 1997 . National Forestry Action Plan , Pretoria : DWAF .
   Google Scholar
• De Ridder , N and Wagenaar , KT . 1986 . Energy and protein balances in traditional livestock systems and ranching in eastern Botswana . Agricultural Systems , 20 : 1 – 16 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , P and Abivardi , C . 1998 . The value of biodiversity: where ecology and economy blend . Biological Conservation , 83 (3) : 239 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , V and Steins , NA . Developing an analytical framework for multiple‐use commons . Paper presented to the 6th Annual Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property . June 5‐8 , Berkeley.
   Google Scholar
• Grimes , A , Loomis , S Jahnige , P . 1994 . Valuing the rain forest: the economic value of non‐timber forest products in Ecuador . Ambio , 23 (7) : 405 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , D . 1996 . Justice, nature and the geography of difference , Oxford : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) . 1995 . The hidden harvest: the value of wild resources in agricultural systems — a summary , London : IIED .
   Google Scholar
• International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) . 1997 . Valuing the hidden harvest: methodological approaches for local‐level economic analysis of wild resources , Research Series, 3(4) London : IIED .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , JC . Exploring livestock incomes in Zimbabwe's communal lands . People, land and livestock. Proceedings of a workshop on the ‘Socio‐economic dimensions of livestock production in the communal lands of Zimbabwe’. Harare: Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammen‐arbeit (GTZ) and Centre for Applied Social Sciences . Edited by: Cousins , B . University of Zimbabwe .
   Google Scholar
• Kepe , T . 1997a . Environmental entitlements in Mkambati: livelihoods, social institutions and environmental change on the Wild Coast of the Eastern Cape , Research Report No 1. Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies Cape Town : University of the Western Cape .
   Google Scholar
• Kepe , T . 1997b . Communities, entitlements and naturer: the case of the Wild Coast, South Africa . Institute for Development Studies Bulletin , 28 (4) : 47 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kepe , T . 1998 . The problem of defining ‘community’: challenges for the land reform programme in rural South Africa , Occasional Paper No 6. Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies Cape Town : University of the Western Cape .
   Google Scholar
• Leach , M , Mearns , R and Scoones , I . 1997 . Environmental entitlements: a framework for understanding the institutional dynamics of environmental change , Discussion Paper No 359 Sussex : Institute for Development Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Levin , R and Weiner , D . 1996 . The politics of land reform in South Africa after apartheid: perspectives, problems, prospects . Journal of Peasant Studies , 23 (2/3) : 93 – 119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton , M . 1996 . “ Rural reforms and rural livelihoods: the contexts of international experience ” . In Land, labour and livelihoods in rural South Africa, Vol 1: Western Cape , Edited by: Lipton , M , De Klerk , M and Lipton , M . Durban : Indicator .
   Google Scholar
• May , HJ , Allsopp , N Bradley , PN . 1997 . Rural livelihoods and natural resource management in semi‐arid areas of South Africa: Leliefontein Reserve, Namaqualand , Final project report Cape Town : Surplus People Project .
   Google Scholar
• May , J , Carter , M and Posel , D . 1995 . The composition and persistence of poverty in rural South Africa , Johannesburg : Land and Agriculture Policy Centre .
   Google Scholar
• Murray , C . 1981 . Families divided: the impact of migrant labour in Lesotho , Johannesburg : Ravan .
   Google Scholar
• Palmer , R . 1997 . Rural adaptations in the Eastern Cape, South Africa , Working Paper No 11 Rome : Institute for Southern Africa Studies and National University of Lesotho .
   Google Scholar
• Pastoral Development Network . 1992 . Newsletter No 32 , London : Overseas Development Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Scoones , I . 1992 . The economic value of livestock in the communal areas of southern Zimbabwe . Agricultural Systems , 39 : 339 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scoones , I , ed. 1995 . Living with uncertainty: new directions in pastoral development in Africa , London : Intermediate Technology Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Scoones , I . 1996 . Hazards and opportunities: farming livelihoods in dryland Africa. Lessons from Zimbabwe , London : Zed .
   Google Scholar
• Shackleton , C . 1996 . Potential stimulation of local rural economies by harvesting secondary products: a case of the Central Transvaal Lowveld, South Africa . Ambio , 25 (1) : 33 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shackleton , C . 1998 . Review of the value of secondary products within communal systems in semi‐arid areas Unpublished paper.
   Google Scholar
• Shackleton , C and Shackleton , S . 1997 . The use and potential for commercialisation of veld products in the Bushbuckridge Area , Nelspruit : Department of Water Affairs and Forestry .
   Google Scholar
• Shackleton , CM , Dzerefos , CM , Shackleton , SE and Mathabele , FR . in press . The use of and trade in indigenous edible fruits in the Bushbuckridge savanna region, South Africa . Ecology of Food and Nutrition , Forthcoming in
   Google Scholar
• Shackleton , S , ed. 1995 . Adaptive strategies of the poor in arid and semi‐arid lands: in search of sustainable livelihoods. A case study of the Bushbuckridge District, Eastern Transvaal, South Africa , Acornhoek : University of the Witwatersrand Rural Facility .
   Google Scholar
• Shackleton , SE , Dzerefos , CM , Shackleton , CM and Mathabele , FR . in press . Use and trading of wild edible herbs in the Central Lowveld savanna region, South Africa . Economic Botany , Forthcoming in
   Google Scholar
• Turner , S . 1997 . Mid‐term review of the pilot land reform programme , Pretoria : Department of Land Affairs .
   Google Scholar
• Professor, Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies, School of Government, University of the Western Cape. The author is grateful to Charlie Shackleton and Thembela Kepe for their useful comments on this article.
   Google Scholar
• A shorter version of this article was presented as a paper at a symposium on ‘Policy‐making for the sustainable use of communal rangelands’. Fort Hare University, 6‐9 July 1998.
   Google Scholar