HIV among women: does education matter more than we previously thought?

References

• Adams, J. L., Hansen, N. B., Fox, A. M., Taylor, B. B., Van Rensburg, M. J., Mohlahlane, R., & Sikkema, K. J. (2011). Correlates of HIV testing among abused women in South Africa. Violence against Women, 17(8), 1014–1023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ainsworth, M., Beegle, K., & Nyamete, A. (1996). The impact of women’s schooling on fertility and contraceptive use: A study of fourteen Sub-Saharan African countries. The World Bank Economic Review, 10(1), 85–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akers, A., Bernstein, L., Henderson, S., Doyle, J., & Corbie-Smith, G. (2007). Factors associated with lack of interest in HIV testing in older at-risk women. Journal of Women′s Health, 16(6), 842–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alsan, M. M., & Cutler, D. M. (2013). Girls′ education and HIV risk: Evidence from Uganda. Journal of Health Economics, 32(5), 863–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andalón, M., Williams, J., & Grossman, M. (2014). Empowering women: The effect of schooling on young women’s knowledge and use of contraception. Technical Report, National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Bago, J.-L., & Lompo, M. L. (2019). Exploring the linkage between exposure to mass media and HIV awareness among adolescents in Uganda. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 21, 1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrman, J. A. (2015). The effect of increased primary schooling on adult women’s HIV status in Malawi and Uganda: Universal primary education as a natural experiment. Social Science & Medicine, 127, 108–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertocchi, G., & Dimico, A. (2019). The long-term determinants of female HIV infection in Africa: The slave trade, polygyny, and sexual behavior. Journal of Development Economics, 140, 90–105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boerma, J. T., & Weir, S.S. (2005). Integrating demographic and epidemiological approaches to research on HIV/AIDS: the proximate-determinants framework. The Journal of infectious diseases, 191(Supplement_1), S61–S67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunello, G., Fort, M., Schneeweis, N., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2016). The causal effect of education on health: What is the role of health behaviors? Health Economics, 25(3), 314–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappellari, L., & Jenkins, S. P. (2003). Multivariate probit regression using simulated maximum likelihood. The Stata Journal: Promoting Communications on Statistics and Stata, 3(3), 278–294.
   Google Scholar
• Carrizosa, C. M., Blumberg, E. J., Hovell, M. F., Martinez-Donate, A. P., Garcia-Gonzalez, G., Lozada, R., …, Sipan, C. L. (2010). Determinants and prevalence of late HIV testing in Tijuana, Mexico. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 24(5), 333–340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chicoine, L. (2016). Free primary education, schooling, and fertility: Evidence from Ethiopia. Technical Report, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).
   Google Scholar
• Clark, S. (2004). Early marriage and HIV risks in Sub-Saharan Africa. Studies in Family Planning, 35(3), 149–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby, R. A., DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., Salazar, L. F., Head, S., Rose, E., & McDermott-Sales, J. (2008). Sexual agency versus relational factors: A study of condom use antecedents among high-risk young African American women. Sexual Health, 5(1), 41–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cygan-Rehm, K., & Maeder, M. (2013). The effect of education on fertility: Evidence from a compulsory schooling reform. Labour Economics, 25, 35–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Walque, D. (2003). How do information and education affect health decisions? The cases of HIV/AIDS and smoking [Ph.D. dissertation]. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.
   Google Scholar
• De Walque, D. (2007). How does the impact of an HIV/AIDS information campaign vary with educational attainment? Evidence from rural Uganda. Journal of Development Economics, 84(2), 686–714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Walque, D., Nakiyingi-Miiro, J. S., Busingye, J., & Whitworth, J. A. (2005). Changing association between schooling levels and HIV-1 infection over 11 years in a rural population cohort in south-west Uganda. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 10(10), 993–1001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deininger, K. (2003). Does cost of schooling affect enrollment by the poor? Universal primary education in Uganda. Economics of Education Review, 22(3), 291–305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denny, K., & Harmon, C. (2000). Education policy reform and the return to schooling from instrumental variables. CEPR Discussion Papers, 2518.
   Google Scholar
• Diouf, K., & Nour, N. (2013). Female genital cutting and HIV transmission: Is there an association? American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 69, 45–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duflo, E. (2001). Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an unusual policy experiment. American Economic Review, 91(4), 795–813.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duflo, E., Dupas, P., & Kremer, M. (2015). Education, HIV, and early fertility: Experimental evidence from Kenya. American Economic Review, 105(9), 2757–2797.
   Google Scholar
• Durevall, D., & Lindskog, A. (2015). Intimate partner violence and HIV in ten Sub-Saharan African countries: What do the demographic and health surveys tell us? The Lancet Global Health, 3(1), e34–e43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fort, M., Schneeweis, N., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2016). Is education always reducing fertility? Evidence from compulsory schooling reforms. The Economic Journal, 126(595), 1823–1855.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortson, J. G. (2008). The gradient in Sub-Saharan Africa: Socioeconomic status and HIV/AIDS. Demography, 45(2), 303–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, A. M. (2014). Marital concurrency and HIV risk in 16 African countries. AIDS and Behavior, 18(4), 791–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geruso, M., Clark, D., & Royer, H. (2011). The impact of education on fertility: Quasi-experimental evidence from the UK. Technical Report, Mimeo, Princeton, Princeton University.
   Google Scholar
• Hargreaves, J. R., Bonell, C. P., Boler, T., Boccia, D., Birdthistle, I., Fletcher, A., …, Glynn, J. R. (2008). Systematic review exploring time trends in the association between educational attainment and risk of HIV infection in Sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS, 22(3), 403–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. (1979). Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica, 47(1), 153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heckman, J. J. (1976). The common structure of statistical models of truncation, sample selection and limited dependent variables and a simple estimator for such models. Annals of Economic and Social Measurement, 5(4), 475–492.
   Google Scholar
• Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Khuzwayo, N., …, Duvvury, N. (2006). Factors associated with HIV sero-status in young rural South African women: Connections between intimate partner violence and HIV. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(6), 1461–1468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jukes, M., Simmons, S., & Bundy, D. (2008). Education and vulnerability: The role of schools in protecting young women and girls from HIV in southern Africa. AIDS, 22(Suppl 4), S41–S56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kambarami, M. (2006). Femininity, sexuality and culture: Patriarchy and female subordination in Zimbabwe. South Africa: ARSRC.
   Google Scholar
• Kayeyi, N., Sandøy, I. F., & Fylkesnes, K. (2009). Effects of neighbourhood-level educational attainment on HIV prevalence among young women in Zambia. BMC Public Health, 9(1), 310.
   Google Scholar
• Keats, A. (2018). Women’s schooling, fertility, and child health outcomes: Evidence from Uganda’s free primary education program. Journal of Development Economics, 135, 142–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemboi, G. J., Onkware, K., & Ntabo, O. M. (2019). Socio-cultural factors that perpetuate the spread of HIV among women and girls in Keiyo District, Kenya [Ph.D. thesis]. African Journal of Gender and Women Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Kinsler, J. J., Wong, M. D., Sayles, J. N., Davis, C., & Cunningham, W. E. (2007). The effect of perceived stigma from a health care provider on access to care among a low-income HIV-positive population. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21(8), 584–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, G. A., Dandona, R., Kumar, S. P., & Dandona, L. (2011). Behavioral surveillance of premarital sex among never married young adults in a high HIV prevalence district in India. AIDS and Behavior, 15(1), 228–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagarde, E., Auvert, B., Caraël, M., Laourou, M., Ferry, B., Akam, E., …, Chege, J. (2001). Concurrent sexual partnerships and HIV prevalence in five urban communities of Sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS, 15(7), 877–884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., Marshall, C. M., Rees, H. C., Nunez, A., Ezeanolue, E. E., & Ehiri, J. E. (2014). Intimate partner violence and HIV infection among women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 17(1), 18845.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lopman, B., Lewis, J., Nyamukapa, C., Mushati, P., Chandiwana, S., & Gregson, S. (2007). HIV incidence and poverty in Manicaland, Zimbabwe: Is HIV becoming a disease of the poor? AIDS, 21(Suppl 7), S57–S66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzini, N. (2001). Sexual initiation and childbearing among adolescent girls in Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. Reproductive Health Matters, 9(17), 44–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin, B. V. O., Gomez, C. A., & Hearst, N. (1993). Multiple heterosexual partners and condom use among Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites. Family Planning Perspectives, 25(4), 170–174.
   Google Scholar
• Mbirimtengerenji, N. D. (2007). Is HIV/AIDS epidemic outcome of poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa? Croatian Medical Journal, 48(5), 605–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland, M. J., Uecker, J. E., & Regnerus, M. D. (2011). The role of religion in shaping sexual frequency and satisfaction: Evidence from married and unmarried older adults. Journal of Sex Research, 48(2-3), 297–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra, V., Bignami-Van Assche, S., Greener, R., Vaessen, M., & Hong, R. (2007). HIV infection does not disproportionately affect the poorer in Sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS, 21, S17–S28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulwanda, J. (2015). Zambia country report. Monitoring the declaration of commitment on HIV and AIDS and the universal access. Lusaka: Ministry of Health.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy-Graham, E. (2010). And when she comes home? Education and women’s empowerment in intimate relationships. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(3), 320–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwangala, S., Musonda, K. G., Monze, M., Musukwa, K. K., & Fylkesnes, K. (2016). Accuracy in HIV rapid testing among laboratory and non-laboratory personnel in Zambia: Observations from the national HIV proficiency testing system. PLoS One, 11(1), e0146700.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojobo, J. A. (2008). Education: A catalyst for women empowerment in Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Education and Sciences, 4(1).
   Google Scholar
• Otieno, P. A., Kohler, P. K., Bosire, R. K., Brown, E. R., Macharia, S. W., & John-Stewart, G. C. (2010). Determinants of failure to access care in mothers referred to HIV treatment programs in Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS Care, 22(6), 729–736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettifor, A. E., Rees, H. V., Kleinschmidt, I., Steffenson, A. E., MacPhail, C., Hlongwa-Madikizela, L., …, Padian, N. N. (2005). Young people’s sexual health in South Africa: HIV prevalence and sexual behaviors from a nationally representative household survey. AIDS, 19(14), 1525–1534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomeroy, C. (2008). Social determinants of HIV risk in women. AMA Journal of Ethics, 10(7), 457–464.
   Google Scholar
• Qiao, S., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Menon, J. A. (2018). Facilitators and barriers for HIV-testing in Zambia: A systematic review of multi-level factors. PLoS One, 13(2), e0192327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddell, A. (2003). The introduction of free primary education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Background Paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 4.
   Google Scholar
• Semykina, A. (2018). Self-employment among women: Do children matter more than we previously thought? Journal of Applied Econometrics, 33(3), 416–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soler, H., Quadagno, D., Sly, D. F., Riehman, K. S., Eberstein, I. W., & Harrison, D. F. (2000). Relationship dynamics, ethnicity and condom use among low-income women. Family Planning Perspectives, 32(2), 82–101.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sperandio, J. (2011). Context and the gendered status of teachers: women’s empowerment through leadership of non-formal schooling in rural Bangladesh. Gender and Education, 23(2), 121–135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockman, J. K., Lucea, M. B., & Campbell, J. C. (2013). Forced sexual initiation, sexual intimate partner violence and HIV risk in women: A global review of the literature. AIDS and Behavior, 17(3), 832–847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Train, K. E. (2003). Discrete choice methods with simulation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Türmen, T. (2003). Gender and HIV/AIDS. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 82(3), 411–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNAIDS, United Nations Children′s Fund, & World Health Organization. (2011). Global HIV/AIDS response: Epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access: progress report 2011. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44787
   Google Scholar
• USAID. (2019a). Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 Fact sheet. UNAIDS. Technical report.
   Google Scholar
• USAID. (2019b). HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 Country data, Zambia. UNAIDS. Technical report.
   Google Scholar
• USAID. (2020). We’ve got the power — Women, adolescent girls and the HIV response. UNAIDS. Technical report.
   Google Scholar
• Vandemoortele, J., & Delamonica, E. (2000). The ‘education vaccine’ against HIV. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 3(1), 6–13.
   Google Scholar
• Vavrus, F. (2006). Girls′ schooling in Tanzania: The key to HIV/AIDS prevention? AIDS Care, 18(8), 863–871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiteside, A., Vinnitchok, A., Dlamini, T., & Mabuza, K. (2017). Mixed results: the protective role of schooling in the HIV epidemic in Swaziland. African Journal of AIDS Research, 16(4), 305–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yount, K. M., & Abraham, B. K. (2007). Female genital cutting and HIV/AIDS among Kenyan women. Studies in Family Planning, 38(2), 73–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziraba, A. K., Madise, N. J., Kimani, J. K., Oti, S., Mgomella, G., Matilu, M., & Ezeh, A. (2011). Determinants for HIV testing and counselling in Nairobi urban informal settlements. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 663.
   Google Scholar