HIGHER EDUCATION: CHANGING TASKS AND DEFINITIONS

Notes and References

• One suggestion in this context has been to introduce private universities. The idea was immediately met by fierce criticism, e.g. by Dahrendorf, who pointed out that it was a misconception to equate private with elite universities, and that such notions carried with them a danger to egalitarian policies in higher education.
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• Cf. C. Gellert, “The Changing Functions of English and German Universities” (Ph.D. Dissertation), Cambridge University, 1981, to be published as: “Society, Politics, and Universities in England and Germany” by NFER‐Nelson.
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• Fichte , J.G. 1845/1846) . Sämtliche Werke vol. 8 , 203 Berlin Cf. F. Schleiermacher, “Gelegentliche Ge‐danken ber Universitten im deutschen Sinn”, 1808, in E. Anrich (ed.), Die Idee der deutschen Universität (Darmstadt, 1956), p. 272; cf.
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• Humboldt , W. V. 1920 . Gesammelte Schriften vol. 13 , 261 Berlin (Quotations from German texts have been translated into English by the author).
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• Humboldt , W. V. 1964 . Schriften zur Politik und zum Bildungswesen, Werke vol. 4 , 256 Darmstadt
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• Prahl , H. V. 1978 . Sozialgeschichte des Hochschulwesens 227f Munich It has been calculated that roughly one third of all financial support for university research at the end of the 19th century was spent for military purposes. Cf.
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• Ben‐David , J. 1977 . Centres of Learning: Britain, France, Germany, United States 22 New York
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• Gellert , C. 1983 . Vergleich des Studiums an englischen und deutschen Universitaten , 2nd ed 27f Munich
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• Veysey , L. R. 1965 . The Emergence of the American University , Chicago : University of Chicago Press . Cf. D. Riesman, On Higher Education (San Francisco, 1981). See also
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• 1973 . The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education: A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education Berkeley Nowadays, there are some 200 doctorate‐granting institutions in the USA. These are known as “research universities” here. In other classifications, the term refers to a smaller group of large universities which are characterized by certain quantitative criteria concerning research activities. Cf.
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• The American ‘liberal arts’ concept is, however, characterized by a stronger interdisciplinary emphasis, while in England, the ‘Single Honours Degree’, i.e. a specialized training in one subject, is still prevalent.
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• Gellert , C. 1988 . “Andere Ziele, andere Zeiten. Der angloamerikanische Mut zur Erziehung wird durch krzere Studienzeiten belohnt” . Deutsche Universitats‐Zeitung, , 19 : 20 – 23 .
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• Giddens , A. 1984 . The Constitution of Society , Cambridge : Polity . The term “functional” should not be confused with “functionalist”. While the former means “fulfilling a role” or “having a task”, the latter connotes the assumption of certain societal needs, which a set of social actions is supposed to meet or not to meet. For a general critique of functionalism in the social sciences, see
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• Davie , G.E. 1961 . The Democratic Intellect: Scotland and Her Universities in the Nineteenth Century , Edinburgh : University Press . In this context, it is more appropriate to concentrate on England, rather than to include the whole of the United Kingdom or Great Britain, since Scotland has always been much closer to the continental research tradition than England. Cf.
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• Newman , J.H. 1965 . On the Scope and Nature of University Education London [first published in 1852].
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• Ashby , E. Autumn 1967 . “The Future of the Nineteenth Century Idea of a University” . Minerva , 61 : 3 – 17 . See for instance
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• Halsey , A.H. 1961 . “University Expansion and the Collegiate Ideal” . Universities Quarterly , 161 : 55ff
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• Vaughan , M. and Archer , M.S. 1971 . Social Conflict and Educational Change in England and France: 1789‐1848 , Cambridge : University Press . See for instance,
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• Jadot , J. December 1980 . "Hochschulmanage‐ment in Europa” . In Universitatsmanagement: Bericht zur Lage , Edited by: Bender , I. and Henning , W. December , 5 – 35 . University of Trier . cf. also, C. Gellert, “State Interventionism and Institutional Autonomy”, Oxford Review of Education 11 3 (1985) 283‐293.
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• Wittrock , B. and Elzinga , A. , eds. 1985 . The University Research System: The Public Policies of the Home of Scientists , Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksell Int. . See P. Ewert and St. Lullies, Das Hochschulwesen in Frankreich Geschichte, Strukturen und gegenwartige Probleme im Ver‐gleich (Munich: IHF), 1984, pp. 211ff; cf. also:
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• Weber , M. 1972 . Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft , TGbingen : Mohr . Since the described models are not pure and homogeneous structures, but a mix of different tasks and purposes, although with differing emphases of respective areas, they should be treated as ideal‐typical and heuristic concepts in the Weberian sense. Cf.
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• Gellert , C. 1984 . “Institutions‐ und Struktur‐forschung ber das Hochschulsystem” . In Forschungsgegen‐stand Hochschule: berblick und Trendbericht , Edited by: Goldschmidt , D. 217 – 231 . Frankfurt : Campus .
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• Teichler , Ulrich . 1988 . Changing Patterns of the Higher Education System: The Experience of Three Decades London
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• Op. cit., p. 14. Notwithstanding the curious terminology, this is the approach which has been chosen in the present paper.
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• Ibid. Such a broad formulation is even outside the range of a functionalist approach in the tradition of Talcott Parsons. As has been pointed out before, our own usage of the term “functional” is more narrowly defined.
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• Op. cit., p. 15.
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• The hidden evolutionist assumptions in Trow's definition are also difficult to support, since they portray societal development in a deterministic, linear fashion.
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• Op. cit., pp. 29f.
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• Clark , B. R. 1983 . The Higher Education System: Academic Organization in Cross‐National Perspective , 221 Berkeley : University of California Press . According to Burton Clark, variety of students, multiplicity of functions, and control of higher education institutions are not sufficient in defining the concept: “In addition, a ‘legitimacy’ of single and distinct ‘institutional roles’ is essential.”
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• Op. cit., p. 31
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• Not too steep, however; otherwise the system would not be responsive enough to changing conditions.
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• Teichler, op. cit., pp. 54‐56. However, diversity between sectors does not imply that within sectors everything should be equal. Diversity can abound on that level as well.
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• Op. cit., p.99.
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• On this concept of a “duality of structures”, see A. Giddens, 1984, pp. 297ff.
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• The terms “differentiation” and “diversification” are used here as synonyms.
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• Gellert , C. 1989 . Alternatives to Universities in Higher Education: Country Study Federal Republic of Germany , Paris : OECD) .
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• The average study‐period at German universities for a first degree is now about seven years.
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• Britain has established the largest alternative sector, with about half of its student population in it. Germany comes next with roughly one quarter of the students studying in the non‐university sector, and in France it is less than 10 per cent.
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• OECD . 1990/91 . Alternatives to Higher Education Paris
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• Goedegebuure , L. C. J. 1989 . “Institutional Mergers and System Change: Reconstructing the Sector of Higher Vocational Education” . In Dutch Higher Education in Transition: Policy Issues in Higher Education in the Netherlands Edited by: Peter , A.M. Maassen and van Vught , Frans A. 73 Culemborg
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• Op.cit., p. 79.
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• Cf. F. van Vught, “Higher Education in the Netherlands: An Introduction”, in Maassen and van Vught (eds.), op.cit., pp. 12‐16.
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• Ibid.
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