REFERENCES
- Prince RL: Diet and the prevention of osteoporotic fractures. N Engl J Med 337:701–702, 1997.
- Oeraitiene V, Butenaite V: The evaluation of bone mineral density based on nutritional status, age, and anthropometric parameters in elderly women. Medicina (Kaunas) 42:836–842, 2006.
- Bostick RM, Kushi LH, Wu Y, Meyer KA, Sellers TA, Folsom AR: Relation of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy food intake to ischemic heart disease mortality among postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 149:151–161, 1999.
- Holick MF: Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 357:266–281, 2007.
- Tang BM, Eslick GD, Nowson C, Smith C, Bensoussan A: Use of calcium or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis. Lancet 370:657–666, 2007.
- Heaney RP: Vitamin D: how much do we need, and how much is too much? Osteoporos Int 11:553–555, 2000.
- Alissa EM, Bahijri S, Ferns G: Dietary macronutrient intake of Saudi males and its relationship to classical coronary risk factors. Saudi Med J 26:201–207, 2005.
- Al-Nuaim A: Serum total and fractionated cholesterol distribution and prevalence of hypercholesterolemia in urban and rural communities in Saudi Arabia. Int J Cardiol 58:141–149, 1997.
- Alissa EM, Bahjri SM, Al-Ama N, Ahmed WH, Starkey B, Ferns GA: Dietary vitamin A may be a cardiovascular risk factor in a Saudi population. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 14:137–144, 2005.
- McCance RA, Widdowson EM, Holland B: “McCance and Widdowson's: The Composition of Foods.” 6th ed. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 2002.
- “Food Composition Tables for Use in East Asia.” US Department of Health, Education and Welfare and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1972.
- Abalkhail BA: Hypercholesterolemia and susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases among white and blue collars in Jeddah. Saudi Med J 19:123–129, 1998.
- US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services: 2010. Accessed at: http://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/
- Willett W, Stampfer M: Total energy intake: implications for epidemiologic analyses. Am J Epidemiol 124:17–27, 1986.
- US Department of Health and Human Services: “Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General.” Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Centers for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.
- World Health Organization: “Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2000. . WHO Technical Report Series No. 894.
- Valsamakis G, Chetty R, Anwar A, Banerjee AK, Barnett A, Kumar S: Association of simple anthropometric measures of obesity with visceral fat and the metabolic syndrome in male Caucasian and Indo-Asian subjects. Diabet Med 21:1339–1345, 2004.
- World Health Organization: “Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio. A Report of a WHO Expert Consultation.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2008.
- Pearce S, Cheetham T: Diagnosis and management of vitamin D deficiency. BMJ 340:142–147, 2010.
- World Health Organization: “Assessment of Fracture Risk and Its Application to Screening for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis.” Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1994. . WHO Technical Report Series No. 843.
- Masse PG, Dosy J, Tranchant CC, Dallaire R: Dietary macro and micronutrient intakes of non supplemented pre- and postmenopausal women with a perspective on menopause associated diseases. J Hum Nutr Diet 17:121–132, 2004.
- Pedone C, Napoli N, Pozzilli P, Rossi FF, Lauretani F, Bandinelli S, Ferrucci L, Antonelli-Incalzi R: Dietary pattern and bone density changes in elderly women: a longitudinal study. J Am Coll Nutr 30:149–154, 2011.
- Bredella MA, Torriani M, Ghomi RH, Thomas BJ, Brick DJ, Gerweck AV, Harrington LM, Breggia A, Rosen CJ, Miller KK: Determinants of bone mineral density in obese premenopausal women. Bone 48:748–754, 2011.
- Defay R, Delcourt C, Ranvier M, Lacroux A, Papoz L: Relationships between physical activity, obesity and diabetes mellitus in a French elderly population: the POLA study. Int J Obes 25:512–518, 2001.
- Jensen GL, Friedman JM: Obesity is associated with functional decline in community-dwelling rural older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 50:918–923, 2002.
- Kilpi F, Webber L, Musaigner A, Aitsi-Selmi A, Marsh T, Rtveladze K, McPherson K, Brown M: Alarming predictions for obesity and non-communicable diseases in the Middle East. Public Health Nutr 3:1–9, 2013.
- Nieves JW, Grisso JA, Kelsey JL: A case-control study of hip fracture: evaluation of selected dietary variables and teenage physical activity. Osteoporos Int 2:122–127, 1992.
- Pocock N, Eisman J, Gwinn T, Sambrook P, Kelly P, Freund J, Yeates M: Muscle strength, physical fitness and weight, but not age predict femoral neck bone mass. J Bone Miner Res 4:441–448, 1989.
- Schurch MA, Rizzoli R, Slosman D, Vadas L, Vergnaud P, Bonjour JP: Protein supplements increase serum insulin-like growth factor-I level and attenuate proximal femur bone loss in patients with recent hip fracture. A randomized, double bind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 128:801–809, 1998.
- Earnshaw SA, Worley A, Hosking DJ: Current diet does not relate to bone mineral density after the menopause. The Nottingham Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort (EPIC) Study Group. Br J Nutr 78:65–72, 1997.
- Hegsted DM: Fractures, calcium, and the modern diet. Am J Clin Nutr 74:571–573, 2001.
- Lloyd T, Beck TJ, Lin HM, Tulchinsky M, Eggli DF, Oreskovic TL, Cavanagh PR, Seeman E: Modifiable determinants of bone status in young women. Bone 30:416–421, 2002.
- Shoback D: Update in osteoporosis and metabolic bone disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:747–753, 2007.
- Weaver CM, Proulx WR, Heaney R: Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr 70:543S–548S, 1999.
- Cashman KD: Diet, nutrition, and bone health. J Nutr 137(suppl 11):2507–2512S, 2007.
- Lips P: Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications. Endocr Rev 22:477–501, 2001.
- Pattanaungkul S, Riggs BL, Yergey AL, Vieira NE, O’Fallon WM, Khosla S: Relationship of intestinal calcium absorption to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] levels in young versus elderly women: evidence for age-related intestinal resistance to 1,25(OH)2D action. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:4023–4027, 2000.
- Burgaz A, Åkesson A, Öster A, Michaëlsson K, Wolk A: Associations of diet, supplement use, and ultraviolet B radiation exposure with vitamin D status in Swedish women during winter. Am J Clin Nutr 86:1399–1404, 2007.
- Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Kiel DP, Dawson-Hughes B, Orav JE, Li R, Spiegelman D, Dietrich T, Willett WC: Dietary calcium and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status in relation to BMD among US adults. J Bone Miner Res 24:935–942, 2009.
- Elsammak M, Al-Wosaibi A, Al-Howeish A, Alsaeed J: Vitamin D deficiency in Saudi Arabs. Horm Metab Res 42:364–368, 2010.
- Alissa EM, Qadi SG, Alhujaili NA, Alshehri AM, Ferns GA: Effect of diet and lifestyle factors on bone health in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Metab 29:725–735, 2011.
- Michaelsson K, Holmberg L, Mallmin H, Wolk A, Bergstrom R, Ljunghall S: Diet, bone mass, and osteocalcin: a cross-sectional study. Calcif Tissue Int 57:86–93, 1995.
- Brink EJ, Haddeman E, de Fouw NJ, Weststrate JA: Positional distribution of stearic acid and oleic acid in a triacylglycerol and dietary calcium concentration determines the apparent absorption of these fatty acids in rats. J Nutr 125:2379–2387, 1995.
- Watkins BA, Li Y, Lippman HE, Seifert MF: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and skeletal health. Exp Biol Med 226:485–497, 2001.
- Cooper C, Atkinson EJ, Hensrud DD, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, Riggs BL, Melton LJ III: Dietary protein intake and bone mass in women. Calcif Tissue Int 58:320–325, 1996.
- Ilich JZ, Kerstetter JE: Nutrition in bone health revisited: a story beyond calcium. J Am Coll Nutr 19:715–737, 2000.
- Barzel US, Massey LK: Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. J Nutr 128:1051–1053, 1998.
- Jeong SW, Han SY, Kim KM, Lee SY, Kim YJ: The relationship between nutrient intake and bone mineral density by use of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. J Korean Acad Fam Med 21:523–532, 2000.
- Rebouche CJ: Ascorbic-acid and carnitine biosynthesis. Am J Clin Nutr 54(suppl 6):S1147–S1152, 1991.
- Sahni S, Hannan MT, Gagon D, Blumberg J, Cupples LA, Kiel DP, Tucker KL: High vitamin C intake is associated with lower 4-year bone loss in elderly men. J Nutr 138:1931–1938, 2008.