Nutritional Supplements During Gestation and Autism Spectrum Disorder: What Do We Really Know and How Far Have We Gone?

References

• Elsabbagh M, Divan G, Koh Y-J, Kim YS, Kauchali S, Marcín C, Montiel-Nava C, Patel V, Paula CS, Wang C, et al. Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Res. 2012;5(3):160–179. doi:10.1002/aur.239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tordjman S, Cohen D, Coulon N, Anderson GM, Botbol M, Canitano R, et al. Reframing autism as a behavioral syndrome and not a specific mental disorder: Implications of genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;80:210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moussa HN, Srikrishnan A, Blackwell SC, Dash P, Sibai BM. Fetal origins of autism spectrum disorders: the non-associated maternal factors. Future Sci OA. 2016;2(2):114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modabbernia A, Velthorst E, Reichenberg A. Environmental risk factors for autism: an evidence-based review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Mol Autism. 2017;813doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0121-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felix JF, Joubert BR, Baccarelli AA, Sharp GC, Almqvist C, Annesi-Maesano I, Arshad H, Baïz N, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Bakulski KM, et al. Cohort Profile: Pregnancy and childhood epigenetics (PACE) consortium. Int J Epidemiol. 2018;47(1):22–23. doi:10.1093/ije/dyx190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gage SH, Munafò MR, Davey Smith G. Causal inference in developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) research. Annu Rev Psychol. 2016;67(1):567–585. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033352.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Codagnone MG, Spichak S, O'Mahony SM, O'Leary OF, Clarke G, Stanton C, et al. Programming bugs: microbiota and the developmental origins of brain health and disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2019;85:150–163. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.06.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody L, Chen H, Pan YX. Early-life nutritional programming of cognition-the fundamental role of epigenetic mechanisms in mediating the relation between early-life environment and learning and memory process. Adv Nutr. 2017;8(2):337–350. doi:10.3945/an.116.014209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Li N, Yang Z. Perinatal food restriction impaired spatial learning and memory behavior and decreased the density of nitric oxide synthase neurons in the hippocampus of adult male rat offspring. Toxicol Lett. 2010;193(2):167–172. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vohr BR, Poggi Davis E, Wanke CA, Krebs NF. Neurodevelopment: the impact of nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy in low-resource settings. Pediatrics. 2017;139(Supplement 1):S38–49. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2828F.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Madore C, Leyrolle Q, Lacabanne C, Benmamar-Badel A, Joffre C, Nadjar A, Layé S. Neuroinflammation in Autism: plausible role of maternal inflammation, dietary omega 3, and microbiota. Neural Plast. 2016;20163597209doi:10.1155/2016/3597209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nugent BM, Bale TL. The omniscient placenta: metabolic and epigenetic regulation of fetal programming. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2015;3928–37. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.09.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myatt L, Thornburg KL. Effects of prenatal nutrition and the role of the placenta in health and disease. Methods Mol Biol. 2018;173519–46. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7614-0_2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van De Sande MM, van Buul VJ, Brouns FJ. Autism and nutrition: the role of the gut-brain axis. Nutr Res Rev. 2014;27(2):199–214. doi:10.1017/S0954422414000110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovrolis N, Kolios G, Spyrou GM, Maroulakou I. Computational profiling of the gut-brain axis: microflora dysbiosis insights to neurological disorders. Brief Bioinform. 2019;20:825–841. doi:10.1093/bib/bbx154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogou M, Kolios G. Are therapeutic diets an emerging additional choice in autism spectrum disorder management? World J Pediatr. 2018;14(3):215–223. doi:10.1007/s12519-018-0164-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogou M, Kolios G. The effect of dietary supplements on clinical aspects of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of the literature. Brain Dev. 2017;39(8):656–664. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2017.03.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyman SL, Stewart PA, Foley J, Cain U, Peck R, Morris DD, Wang H, Smith T. The gluten-free/casein-free diet: a double-blind challenge trial in children with Autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46(1):205–220. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2564-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mankad D, Dupuis A, Smile S, Roberts W, Brian J, Lui T, Genore L, Zaghloul D, Iaboni A, Marcon P, et al. A randomized, placebo controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of young children with Autism. Mol Autism. 2015;6(1):18. doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0010-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vuillermot S, Luan W, Meyer U, Eyles D. Vitamin D treatment during pregnancy prevents autism-related phenotypes in a mouse model of maternal immune activation. Mol Autism. 2017;8:9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiser MJ, Mucha B, Denheyer H, Atkinson D, Schanz N, Vassiliou E, Benno RH. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid alleviates autistic-like behaviors resulting from maternal immune activation in mice. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2016;10627–37. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2015.10.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran PV, Kennedy BC, Pisansky MT, Won K-J, Gewirtz JC, Simmons RA, Georgieff MK. Prenatal choline supplementation diminishes early-life iron deficiency-induced reprogramming of molecular networks associated with behavioral abnormalities in the adult rat hippocampus. J Nutr. 2016;146(3):484–493. doi:10.3945/jn.115.227561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barua S, Kuizon S, Brown WT, Junaid MA. High gestational folic acid supplementation alters expression of imprinted and candidate autism susceptibility genes in a sex-specific manner in mouse offspring. J Mol Neurosci. 2016;58(2):277–286. doi:10.1007/s12031-015-0673-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsui F, Hecht P, Yoshimoto K, Watanabe Y, Morimoto M, Fritsche K, Will M, Beversdorf D. DHA mitigates autistic behaviors accompanied by dopaminergic change in a gene/prenatal stress mouse model. Neuroscience. 2018;371407–419. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones KL, Will MJ, Hecht PM, Parker CL, Beversdorf DQ. Maternal diet rich in omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation and lactation produces autistic-like sociability deficits in adult offspring. Behav Brain Res. 2013;238193–199. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anjum I, Jaffery SS, Fayyaz M, Samoo Z, Anjum S. The role of vitamin D in brain health: a mini literature review. Cureus. 2018;10(7):e2960doi:10.7759/cureus.2960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko I, Sabir MS, Dussik CM, Whitfield GK, Karrys A, Hsieh J-C, Haussler MR, Meyer MB, Pike JW, Jurutka PW, et al. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D regulates expression of the tryptophan hydroxylase 2 and leptin genes: implication for behavioral influences of vitamin D. Faseb J. 2015;29(9):4023–4035. doi:10.1096/fj.14-269811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazahery H, Camargo CA, Jr, Conlon C, Beck KL, Kruger MC, von Hurst PR. Vitamin D and autism spectrum disorder: a literature review. Nutrients. 2016;8(4):236doi:10.3390/nu8040236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates NJ, Tesic D, Feindel KW, Smith JT, Clarke MW, Wale C, Crew RC, Wharfe MD, Whitehouse AJO, Wyrwoll CS, et al. Vitamin D is crucial for maternal care and offspring social behaviour in rats. J Endocrinol. 2018;237(2):73–85. doi:10.1530/JOE-18-0008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langguth M, Fassin M, Alexander S, Turner KM, Burne T. No effect of prenatal vitamin D deficiency on autism-relevant behaviours in multiple inbred strains of mice. Behav Brain Res. 2018;34842–52. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.04.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson CM, Ralph JL, Johnson L, Scheett A, Wright ML, Taylor JY, Ohm JE, Uthus E. First trimester vitamin D status and placental epigenomics in preeclampsia among Northern Plains primiparas. Life Sci. 2015;12910–15. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2014.07.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu D-M, Wen X, Han X-R, Wang S, Wang Y-J, Shen M, Fan S-H, Zhuang J, Li M-Q, Hu B, et al. Relationship between neonatal vitamin D at birth and risk of autism spectrum disorders: the NBSIB study. J Bone Miner Res. 2018;33(3):458–466. doi:10.1002/jbmr.3326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinkhuyzen AAE, Eyles DW, Burne THJ, Blanken LME, Kruithof CJ, Verhulst F, White T, Jaddoe VW, Tiemeier H, McGrath JJ, et al. Gestational vitamin D deficiency and autism spectrum disorder. BJPsych Open. 2017;3(2):85–90. doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.116.004077.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinkhuyzen AAE, Eyles DW, Burne THJ, Blanken LME, Kruithof CJ, Verhulst F, Jaddoe VW, Tiemeier H, McGrath JJ. Gestational vitamin D deficiency and autism-related traits: the generation R study. Mol Psychiatry. 2018;23(2):240–246. doi:10.1038/mp.2016.213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen J, Xin K, Wei J, Zhang K, Xiao H. Lower maternal serum 25(OH) D in first trimester associated with higher autism risk in Chinese offspring. J Psychosom Res. 2016;8998–101. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.08.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia F, Shan L, Wang B, Li H, Feng J, Xu Z, et al. Fluctuations in clinical symptoms with changes in serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels in autistic children: Three cases report. Nutr Neurosci. 2018;81–4. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1458421.
   Google Scholar
• Saad K, Abdel-Rahman AA, Elserogy YM, Al-Atram AA, Cannell JJ, Bjørklund G, Abdel-Reheim MK, Othman HAK, El-Houfey AA, Abd El-Aziz NHR, et al. Vitamin D status in autism spectrum disorders and the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation in autistic children. Nutr Neurosci. 2016;19(8):346–351. doi:10.1179/1476830515Y.0000000019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerley CP, Power C, Gallagher L, Coghlan D. Lack of effect of vitamin D3 supplementation in autism: a 20-week, placebo-controlled RCT. Arch Dis Child. 2017;102(11):1030–1036. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2017-312783.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun GY, Simonyi A, Fritsche KL, Chuang DY, Hannink M, Gu Z, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): An essential nutrient and a nutraceutical for brain health and diseases. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2018;136:3–13. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2017.03.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortunato JJ, da Rosa N, Martins Laurentino AO, Goulart M, Michalak C, Borges LP, da Cruz Cittadin Soares E, Reis PA, de Castro Faria Neto HC, Petronilho F, et al. Effects of ω-3 fatty acids on stereotypical behavior and social interactions in Wistar rats prenatally exposed to lipopolysaccarides. Nutrition. 2017;35119–127. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2016.10.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyall K, Munger KL, O'Reilly ÉJ, Santangelo SL, Ascherio A. Maternal dietary fat intake in association with autism spectrum disorders. Am J Epidemiol. 2013;178(2):209–220. doi:10.1093/aje/kws433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tesei A, Crippa A, Ceccarelli SB, Mauri M, Molteni M, Agostoni C, Nobile M. The potential relevance of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid to the etiopathogenesis of childhood neuropsychiatric disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017;26(9):1011–1030. doi:10.1007/s00787-016-0932-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brigandi S, Shao H, Qian S, Shen Y, Wu BL, Kang J. Autistic children exhibit decreased levels of essential fatty acids in red blood cells. IJMS. 2015;16(12):10061. doi:10.3390/ijms160510061.
   Google Scholar
• Vancassel S, Durand G, Barthélémy C, Lejeune B, Martineau J, Guilloteau D, Andrès C, Chalon S. Plasma fatty acid levels of autistic children. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2001;65(1):1–7. doi:10.1054/plef.2001.0281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazahery H, Stonehouse W, Delshad M, Kruger M, Conlon C, Beck K, von Hurst P. Relationship between long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and autism spectrum disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control and randomised controlled trials. Nutrients. 2017;9(2):155. doi:10.3390/nu9020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooi YP, Weng S-J, Jang LY, Low L, Seah J, Teo S, Ang RP, Lim CG, Liew A, Fung DS, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in the management of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Findings from an open-label pilot study in Singapore. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2015;69(8):969–971. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKee SE, Grissom NM, Herdt CT, Reyes TM. Methyl donor supplementation alters cognitive performance and motivation in female offspring from high-fat diet-fed dams. Faseb J. 2017;31(6):2352–2363. doi:10.1096/fj.201601172R.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill RJ, Vrana PB, Rosenfeld CS. Maternal methyl supplemented diets and effects on offspring health. Front Genet. 2014;5:289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medici V, Shibata NM, Kharbanda KK, Islam MS, Keen CL, Kim K, Tillman B, French SW, Halsted CH, LaSalle JM, et al. Maternal choline modifies fetal liver copper, gene expression, DNA methylation, and neonatal growth in the tx-j mouse model of Wilson disease. Epigenetics. 2014;9(2):286–296. doi:10.4161/epi.27110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ash JA, Velazquez R, Kelley CM, Powers BE, Ginsberg SD, Mufson EJ, Strupp BJ. Maternal choline supplementation improves spatial mapping and increases basal forebrain cholinergic neuron number and size in aged Ts65Dn mice. Neurobiol Dis. 2014;7032–42. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2014.06.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaible TD, Harris RA, Dowd SE, Smith CW, Kellermayer R. Maternal methyl-donor supplementation induces prolonged murine offspring colitis susceptibility in association with mucosal epigenetic and microbiomic changes. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(9):1687–1696. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddr044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delaney C, Garg SK, Fernandes C, Hoeltzel M, Allen RH, Stabler S, Yung R. Maternal diet supplemented with methyl-donors protects against atherosclerosis in F1 ApoE(-/-) mice. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56253. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giudicelli F, Brabant AL, Grit I, Parnet P, Amarger V. Excess of methyl donor in the perinatal period reduces postnatal leptin secretion in rat and interacts with the effect of protein content in diet. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e68268. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degroote S, Hunting D, Takser L. Periconceptional folate deficiency leads to autism-like traits in Wistar rat offspring. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2018;66132–138. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2017.12.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran PV, Kennedy BC, Lien YC, Simmons RA, Georgieff MK. Fetal iron deficiency induces chromatin remodeling at the Bdnf locus in adult rat hippocampus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2015;308(4):276–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaminsky Z, Wang SC, Petronis A. Complex disease, gender and epigenetics. Ann Med. 2006;38(8):530–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrocco J, McEwen BS. Sex in the brain: hormones and sex differences. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2016;18(4):373–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai X, Wu X, Hou N, Liu S, Li Q, Yang T, et al. Vitamin A deficiency induces autistic-like behaviors in rats by regulating the RARβ-CD38-oxytocin axis in the hypothalamus. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2018;62:1700754. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201700754.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeVilbiss EA, Magnusson C, Gardner RM, Rai D, Newschaffer CJ, Lyall K, et al. Antenatal nutritional supplementation and autism spectrum disorders in the stockholm youth cohort: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2017;359:4273.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raghavan R, Riley AW, Volk H, Caruso D, Hironaka L, Sices L, Hong X, Wang G, Ji Y, Brucato M, et al. Maternal multivitamin intake, plasma folate and vitamin B12 levels and autism spectrum disorder risk in offspring. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2018;32(1):100–111. doi:10.1111/ppe.12414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strøm M, Granström C, Lyall K, Ascherio A, Olsen SF. Research Letter: Folic acid supplementation and intake of folate in pregnancy in relation to offspring risk of autism spectrum disorder. Psychol Med. 2018;48(6):1048–1054. doi:10.1017/S0033291717002410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange KW, Hauser J, Reissmann A. Gluten-free and casein-free diets in the therapy of autism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2015;18(6):572–575. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopf KP, Madren E, Santianni KA. Use and perceived effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine to treat and manage the symptoms of autism in children: a survey of parents in a community population. J Altern Complement Med. 2016;22(1):25–32. doi:10.1089/acm.2015.0163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Ozonoff S, Hansen RL, Hartiala J, Allayee H, Schmidt LC, Tassone F, Hertz-Picciotto I. Maternal periconceptional folic acid intake and risk of autism spectrum disorders and developmental delay in the CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(1):80–89. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.004416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun JM, Froehlich T, Kalkbrenner A, Pfeiffer CM, Fazili Z, Yolton K, Lanphear BP. Brief report: are autistic-behaviors in children related to prenatal vitamin use and maternal whole blood folate concentrations? J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(10):2602–2607. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2114-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surén P, Roth C, Bresnahan M, Haugen M, Hornig M, Hirtz D, Lie KK, Lipkin WI, Magnus P, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, et al. Association between maternal use of folic acid supplements and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children. JAMA. 2013;309(6):570–577. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.155925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine SZ, Kodesh A, Viktorin A, Smith L, Uher R, Reichenberg A, Sandin S. Association of maternal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements in the periods before and during pregnancy with the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):176–184. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Li K, Zhao D, Li L. The association between maternal use of folic acid supplements during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children: a meta-analysis. Mol Autism. 2017;8:51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenweg-de Graaff J, Ghassabian A, Jaddoe VW, Tiemeier H, Roza SJ. Folate concentrations during pregnancy and autistic traits in the offspring. The Generation R Study. Eur J Public Health. 2015;25(3):431–433. doi:10.1093/eurpub/cku126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsen RM, Surén P, Gunnes N, Alsaker ER, Bresnahan M, Hirtz D, Hornig M, Lie KK, Lipkin WI, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, et al. Analysis of self-selection bias in a population-based cohort study of autism spectrum disorders. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2013;27(6):553–563. doi:10.1111/ppe.12077.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virk J, Liew Z, Olsen J, Nohr EA, Catov JM, Ritz B. Preconceptional and prenatal supplementary folic acid and multivitamin intake and autism spectrum disorders. Autism. 2016;20(6):710–718. doi:10.1177/1362361315604076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James SJ, Melnyk S, Jernigan S, Pavliv O, Trusty T, Lehman S, et al. A functional polymorphism in the reduced folate carrier gene and DNA hypomethylation in mothers of children with autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2010;153(6):1209–1220.
   Google Scholar
• Sun C, Zou M, Zhao D, Xia W, Wu L. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in autistic children participating in structured teaching: an open-label trial. Nutrients. 2016;8(6):337. doi:10.3390/nu8060337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frye RE, Slattery J, Delhey L, Furgerson B, Strickland T, Tippett M, Sailey A, Wynne R, Rose S, Melnyk S, et al. Folinic acid improves verbal communication in children with autism and language impairment: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Mol Psychiatry. 2018;23(2):247–256. doi:10.1038/mp.2016.168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Krakowiak P, Hansen RL, Ozonoff S. Maternal intake of supplemental iron and risk of autism spectrum disorder. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180(9):890–900. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cusick SE, Georgieff MK, Rao R. Approaches for reducing the risk of early-life iron deficiency-induced brain dysfunction in children. Nutrients. 2018;10(2):227. doi:10.3390/nu10020227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt RJ, Hansen RL, Hartiala J, Allayee H, Schmidt LC, Tancredi DJ, Tassone F, Hertz-Picciotto I. Prenatal vitamins, one-carbon metabolism gene variants, and risk for autism. Epidemiology. 2011;22(4):476–485. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e31821d0e30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundqvist A, Johansson I, Wennberg A, Hultdin J, Högberg U, Hamberg K, Sandström H. Reported dietary intake in early pregnant compared to non-pregnant women - a cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2014;14(1):373. doi:10.1186/s12884-014-0373-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barua S, Chadman KK, Kuizon S, Buenaventura D, Stapley NW, Ruocco F, Begum U, Guariglia SR, Brown WT, Junaid MA, et al. Increasing maternal or post-weaning folic acid alters gene expression and moderately changes behavior in the offspring. PLoS One. 2014;9(7):e101674doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elnenaei MO, Chandra R, Mangion T, Moniz C. Genomic and metabolomic patterns segregate with responses to calcium and vitamin D supplementation. Br J Nutr. 2011;105(1):71–79. doi:10.1017/S0007114510003065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Achour O, Elmtaoua S, Zellama D, Omezzine A, Moussa A, Rejeb J, Boumaiza I, Bouacida L, Rejeb NB, Achour A, et al. The C677T MTHFR genotypes influence the efficacy of B9 and B12 vitamins supplementation to lowering plasma total homocysteine in hemodialysis. J Nephrol. 2016;29(5):691–698. doi:10.1007/s40620-015-0235-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Z, Li S, Yu L, Liu J. Polymorphisms in vitamin D receptor genes in association with childhood autism spectrum disorder. Dis Markers. 2018;20187862892doi:10.1155/2018/7862892.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Masi A, DeMayo MM, Glozier N, Guastella AJ. An overview of autism spectrum disorder, heterogeneity and treatment options. Neurosci Bull. 2017;33(2):183–193. doi:10.1007/s12264-017-0100-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar