Current Status of Malnutrition and Stunting in Pakistani Children: What Needs to Be Done?

References

• Webb P, Stordalen GA, Singh S, Wijesinha-Bettoni R, Shetty P, Lartey A. Hunger and malnutrition in the 21st century. BMJ. 2018;361:k2238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ntenda P. Association of low birth weight with undernutrition in preschool-aged children in malawi. Nutr J. 2019;18(1):51. doi:10.1186/s12937-019-0477-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Malnutrition-key facts. In: Malnutrition-key facts. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), WHO, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. Levels and trends in child malnutrition: key findings of the 2019 edition of the joint child malnutrition estimates. In: Levels and trends in child malnutrition: key findings of the 2019 edition of the joint child malnutrition estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Development Initiatives. 2018 global nutrition report: shining a light to spur action on nutrition. In: 2018 global nutrition report: shining a light to spur action on nutrition; North Quay House, Quay Side, Temple Back, Bristol, BS1 6FL, UK. Development Initiatives, Poverty Research Ltd; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Hock RS, Bryce CP, Fischer L, First MB, Fitzmaurice GM, Costa PT, Galler JR. Childhood malnutrition and maltreatment are linked with personality disorder symptoms in adulthood: results from a Barbados lifespan cohort. Psychiatry Res. 2018;269:301–8. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.05.085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearce MS, Deary IJ, Young AH, Parker L. Growth in early life and childhood IQ at age 11 years: the Newcastle Thousand Families Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34(3):673–7. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGovern ME, Krishna A, Aguayo VM, Subramanian SV. A review of the evidence linking child stunting to economic outcomes. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(4):1171–91. doi:10.1093/ije/dyx017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Food Program (WFP). The economic consequences of undernutrition in Pakistan: an assessment of losses. In: The economic consequences of undernutrition in Pakistan: an assessment of losses. Islamabad, Pakistan: World Food Program (WFP), Islamabad, Pakistan; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Khan S, Zaheer S, Safdar NF. Determinants of stunting, underweight and wasting among children < 5 years of age: evidence from 2012–2013 Pakistan demographic and health survey. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• UNICEF. Press release on global nutrition report 2018. In: Press release on global nutrition report 2018; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations (UN). Worldometer, Pakistan population (live). In: Worldometer, Pakistan population (live); 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Asim M, Nawaz Y. Child malnutrition in Pakistan: evidence from literature. Children (Basel). 2018;5(5):60. doi:10.3390/children5050060.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutta ZA, Salam RA, Das JK. Meeting the challenges of micronutrient malnutrition in the developing world. Br Med Bull. 2013;106(1):7–17. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldt015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization and UNICEF. Who child growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in infants and children. In: Who child growth standards and the identification of severe acute malnutrition in infants and children; Department of Nutrition Health and Development, 20 Avenue Appia, 1121 Geneva 27. Switzerland: World Health Organization and UNICEF; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Moreno Villares JM, Collado MC, Larque E, Leis Trabazo R, Saenz De Pipaon M, Moreno Aznar LA. [The first 1000 days: an opportunity to reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases]. Nutr Hosp. 2019;36(1):218–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woldeamanuel BT, Tesfaye TT. Risk factors associated with under-five stunting, wasting, and underweight based on Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey datasets in Tigray region, ethiopia. J Nutr Metab. 2019;2019:1–11. doi:10.1155/2019/6967170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danaei G, Andrews KG, Sudfeld CR, Fink G, McCoy DC, Peet E, Sania A, Smith Fawzi MC, Ezzati M, Fawzi WW. Risk factors for childhood stunting in 137 developing countries: a comparative risk assessment analysis at global, regional, and country levels. PLoS Med. 2016;13(11):e1002164. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhtar S. Malnutrition in south asia—a critical reappraisal. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016;56(14):2320–30. doi:10.1080/10408398.2013.832143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran NT, Nguyen LT, Berde Y, Low YL, Tey SL, Huynh D. Maternal nutritional adequacy and gestational weight gain and their associations with birth outcomes among Vietnamese women. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2019;19(1):468. doi:10.1186/s12884-019-2643-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Population Studies—NIPS/Pakistan, ICF. Pakistan demographic and health survey 2017–18. In: Pakistan demographic and health survey 2017–18. Islamabad, Pakistan: NIPS/Pakistan and ICF; 2019. For assistance using downloaded citations from The DHS Program, please visit http://dhsprogram.com/publications/Citing-DHS-Publications.cfm. The 2017–2018 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (2017–2018 PDHS) was implemented by the National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) under the aegis of the Ministry of National Health Services, Regulations and Coordination, Islamabad, Pakistan. ICF provided technical assistance through The DHS Program, a project funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) that provides support and technical assistance in the implementation of population and health surveys in countries worldwide. Support for the survey was also provided by the Department for International Development (DFID) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA).
   Google Scholar
• Beluska-Turkan K, Korczak R, Hartell B, Moskal K, Maukonen J, Alexander DE, Salem N, Harkness L, Ayad W, Szaro J, et al. Nutritional gaps and supplementation in the first 1000 days. Nutrients. 2019;11(12):2891. doi:10.3390/nu11122891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Onis M, Branca F. Childhood stunting: a global perspective. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12(Suppl 1):12–26. doi:10.1111/mcn.12231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn MK, Smith ER, Williams PL, Urassa W, Shi J, Msamanga G, Fawzi WW, Sudfeld CR. The effect of maternal multiple micronutrient supplementation on female early infant mortality is fully mediated by increased gestation duration and intrauterine growth. J Nutr. 2019;150(2):356–63. doi:10.1093/jn/nxz246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akombi BJ, Agho KE, Hall JJ, Merom D, Astell-Burt T, Renzaho A. Stunting and severe stunting among children under-5 years in Nigeria: a multilevel analysis. BMC Pediatr. 2017;17(1):15. doi:10.1186/s12887-016-0770-z.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Akombi BJ, Agho KE, Renzaho AM, Hall JJ, Merom DR. Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in child undernutrition: evidence from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (2003–2013). PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0211883. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rytter MJH, Kolte L, Briend A, Friis H, Christensen VB. The immune system in children with malnutrition—a systematic review. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e105017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walson JL, Berkley JA. The impact of malnutrition on childhood infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2018;31(3):231–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millward DJ. Nutrition, infection and stunting: the roles of deficiencies of individual nutrients and foods, and of inflammation, as determinants of reduced linear growth of children. Nutr Res Rev. 2017;30(1):50–72. doi:10.1017/S0954422416000238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvissberg MA, Dalvi PS, Kerac M, Voskuijl W, Berkley JA, Priebe MG, Bandsma R. Carbohydrate malabsorption in acutely malnourished children and infants: a systematic review. Nutr Rev. 2016;74(1):48–58. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibrahim MK, Zambruni M, Melby CL, Melby PC. Impact of childhood malnutrition on host defense and infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017;30(4):919–71. doi:10.1128/CMR.00119-16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie W, Jensen SKG, Wade M, Kumar S, Westerlund A, Kakon SH, Haque R, Petri WA, Nelson CA. Growth faltering is associated with altered brain functional connectivity and cognitive outcomes in urban Bangladeshi children exposed to early adversity. BMC Med. 2019;17(1):199. doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1431-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vonaesch P, Randremanana R, Gody J-C, Collard J-M, Giles-Vernick T, Doria M, Vigan-Womas I, Rubbo P-A, Etienne A, Andriatahirintsoa EJ, et al. Identifying the etiology and pathophysiology underlying stunting and environmental enteropathy: study protocol of the AFRIBIOTA project. BMC Pediatr. 2018;18(1):236. doi:10.1186/s12887-018-1189-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chandrasekhar S, Aguayo VM, Krishna V, Nair R. Household food insecurity and children’s dietary diversity and nutrition in India. Evidence from the comprehensive nutrition survey in Maharashtra. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(Suppl 2):e12447. doi:10.1111/mcn.12447.
   Google Scholar
• Christian AK, Marquis GS, Colecraft EK, Lartey A, Soueida R. Household food insecurity but not dietary diversity is associated with children’s mean micronutrient density adequacy in rural communities across Ghana. Nutrition. 2019;65:97–102. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2019.03.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moradi S, Mirzababaei A, Mohammadi H, Moosavian SP, Arab A, Jannat B, Mirzaei K. Food insecurity and the risk of undernutrition complications among children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition. 2019;62:52–60. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2018.11.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, and WHO. The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. In: The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome: FAO; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan. Pakistan economic survey 2018–2019. In: Pakistan economic survey 2018–2019. Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Pakistan, UNICEF, and UK Aid. Cost of the diet analysis report in pakistan. In: Cost of the diet analysis report in Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: Government of Pakistan, UNICEF, and UK Aid; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• USAID. Food assistance fact sheet Pakistan. In: Food assistance fact sheet Pakistan; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition. Annual report 2016–17. In: Annual report 2016–17; Headquarters. Geneva, Switzerland: Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver LJ, Hadley C. Moving beyond hunger and nutrition: a systematic review of the evidence linking food insecurity and mental health in developing countries. Ecol Food Nutr. 2009;48(4):263–84. doi:10.1080/03670240903001167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman A, Lovel H, Bunn J, Iqbal Z, Harrington R. Mothers’ mental health and infant growth: a case–control study from Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Child Care Health Dev. 2004;30(1):21–7. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2004.00382.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maselko J, Bates L, Bhalotra S, Gallis JA, O’Donnell K, Sikander S, Turner EL. Socioeconomic status indicators and common mental disorders: evidence from a study of prenatal depression in Pakistan. SSM—Popul Health. 2018;4:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.10.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kismul H, Acharya P, Mapatano MA, Hatløy A. Determinants of childhood stunting in the Democratic Republic of Congo: further analysis of demographic and health survey 2013–14. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):74.
   Google Scholar
• Woodruff BA, Wirth JP, Ngnie-Teta I, Beauliere JM, Mamady D, Ayoya MA, Rohner F. Determinants of stunting, wasting, and anemia in Guinean preschool-age children: an analysis of DHS data from 1999, 2005, and 2012. Food Nutr Bull. 2018;39(1):39–53. doi:10.1177/0379572117743004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Utami N, Rachmalina R, Irawati A, Sari K, Rosha BC, Amaliah N. Short birth length, low birth weight and maternal short stature are dominant risks of stunting among children aged 0–23 months: evidence from Bogor Longitudinal Study on Child Growth and Development, Indonesia. Malay J Nutr. 2018;24:11–23.
   Google Scholar
• Beal T, Tumilowicz A, Sutrisna A, Izwardy D, Neufeld LM. A review of child stunting determinants in Indonesia. Matern Child Nutr. 2018;14(4):e12617. doi:10.1111/mcn.12617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mushtaq MU, Gull S, Khurshid U, Shahid U, Shad MA, Siddiqui AM. Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of stunting and thinness among Pakistani primary school children. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(1):790. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-790.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Janjua NZ, Iqbal R, Mahmood B. Association of socioeconomic position with under- and overnutrition in Pakistan. Ann Epidemiol. 2011;21(12):884–91. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.08.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafiq A, Hussain A, Asif M, Hwang J, Jameel A, Kanwel S. The effect of “women’s empowerment” on child nutritional status in Pakistan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(22):4499. doi:10.3390/ijerph16224499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tette EMA, Sifah EK, Nartey ET. Factors affecting malnutrition in children and the uptake of interventions to prevent the condition. BMC Pediatr. 2015;15(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12887-015-0496-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Islam MR, Rahman MS, Rahman MM, Nomura S, de Silva A, Lanerolle P, Jung J, Rahman MM. Reducing childhood malnutrition in Bangladesh: the importance of addressing socio-economic inequalities. Public Health Nutr. 2020;23(1):72–82. doi:10.1017/S136898001900140X.[Mismatch]
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim R, Mejia-Guevara I, Corsi DJ, Aguayo VM, Subramanian SV. Relative importance of 13 correlates of child stunting in South Asia: insights from nationally representative data from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. Soc Sci Med. 2017;187:144–54. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.06.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguayo VM, Nair R, Badgaiyan N, Krishna V. Determinants of stunting and poor linear growth in children under 2 years of age in India: an in-depth analysis of Maharashtra’s Comprehensive Nutrition Survey. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12(Suppl 1):121–40. doi:10.1111/mcn.12259.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson S, Gong YY, Routledge M. Interventions targeting child undernutrition in developing countries may be undermined by dietary exposure to aflatoxin. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2015;57(9):1963–75. doi:10.1080/10408398.2015.1040869.[Mismatch]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kartin A, Subagio HW, Hadisaputro S, Kartasurya MI, Suhartono S, Budiyono B. Pesticide exposure and stunting among children in agricultural areas. Int J Occup Environ Med. 2019;10(1):17–29. doi:10.15171/ijoem.2019.1428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WaterAid. Facts and statistics—WaterAid Pakistan. In: Facts and statistics—WaterAid Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: WaterAid Pakistan; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• PCRWR, Resources PCoRiW (PCRWR). Water quality status of major cities of Pakistan 2015–16. In: Technology MoSa editor. Water quality status of major cities of Pakistan 2015–16. Islamabad, Pakistan: PCRWR, Ministry of Science and Technology; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Gera T, Shah D, Sachdev HS. Impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions on growth, non-diarrheal morbidity and mortality in children residing in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Indian Pediatr. 2018;55(5):381–93. doi:10.1007/s13312-018-1279-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cumming O, Cairncross S. Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12(Suppl 1):91–105. doi:10.1111/mcn.12258.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ngure FM, Reid BM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Pelto G, Stoltzfus RJ. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (wash), environmental enteropathy, nutrition, and early child development: making the links. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2014;1308(1):118–28. doi:10.1111/nyas.12330.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Syed S, Yeruva S, Herrmann J, Sailer A, Sadiq K, Iqbal N, Kabir F, Ahmed K, Qureshi S, Moore SR, et al. Environmental enteropathy in undernourished Pakistani children: clinical and histomorphometric analyses. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2018;98(6):1577–84. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iqbal NT, Syed S, Sadiq K, Khan MN, Iqbal J, Ma JZ, Umrani F, Ahmed S, Maier EA, Denson LA, et al. Study of environmental enteropathy and malnutrition (seem) in Pakistan: protocols for biopsy based biomarker discovery and validation. BMC Pediatr. 2019;19(1):247. doi:10.1186/s12887-019-1564-x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harper KM, Mutasa M, Prendergast AJ, Humphrey J, Manges AR. Environmental enteric dysfunction pathways and child stunting: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(1):e0006205. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0006205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budge S, Parker AH, Hutchings PT, Garbutt C. Environmental enteric dysfunction and child stunting. Nutr Rev. 2019;77(4):240–53. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuy068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zambruni M, Ochoa TJ, Somasunderam A, Cabada MM, Morales ML, Mitreva M, Rosa BA, Acosta GJ, Vigo NI, Riveros M, et al. Stunting is preceded by intestinal mucosal damage and microbiome changes and is associated with systemic inflammation in a cohort of Peruvian infants. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2019;101(5):1009–17. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.18-0975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutta Z, Soofi S, Zaidi S, Habib A, Hussain M. Pakistan national nutrition survey, 2011. In: Pakistan National Nutrition Survey, 2011. Islamabad, Pakistan: Agha Khan University, Government of Pakistan, UNICEF; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), World Health Organization IBfRaD, Bank. TW. Levels and trends in child malnutrition: key findings of the 2019 edition of the joint child malnutrition estimates. In: Levels and trends in child malnutrition: key findings of the 2019 edition of the joint child malnutrition estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Zaidi S, Bhutta Z, Hussain SS, Rasanathan K. Multisector governance for nutrition and early childhood development: overlapping agendas and differing progress in Pakistan. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(Suppl 4):e000678. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000678.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Benedict RK, Craig HC, Torlesse H, Stoltzfus RJ. Trends and predictors of optimal breastfeeding among children 0–23 months, South Asia: analysis of national survey data. Matern Child Nutr. 2018;14(S4):e12698. doi:10.1111/mcn.12698.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO/UNICEF. Global nutrition targets 2025: breastfeeding policy brief (WHO/NMH/NHD/14.7). In: Global nutrition targets 2025: breastfeeding policy brief (WHO/NMH/NHD/14.7). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Pakistan, UNICEF. National nutrition survey 2018—key findings report: a summary of the key insights and statistics. In: National nutrition survey 2018—key findings report: a summary of the key insights and statistics. Islamabad, Pakistan: Ministry of National Health Services, Government of Pakistan; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• World Food Programme (WFP). What the World Food Programme is doing in Pakistan. In: What the World Food Programme is doing in Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: WFP; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Global nutrition targets 2025: stunting policy brief. In: Global nutrition targets 2025: stunting policy brief. WHO reference number: WHO/NMH/NHD/143; Department of Nutrition for Health and Development. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Angood C, Khara T, Dolan C, Berkley JA, WSTI Group. Research priorities on the relationship between wasting and stunting. PLoS One. 2016;11(5):e0153221. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anwar M, Green J, Norris P. Health-seeking behaviour in Pakistan: a narrative review of the existing literature. Public Health. 2012;126(6):507–17. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2012.02.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dykes F, Lhussier M, Bangash S, Zaman M, Lowe N. Exploring and optimising maternal and infant nutrition in North West Pakistan. Midwifery. 2012;28(6):831–5. doi:10.1016/j.midw.2011.09.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutta ZA, Gazdar H, Haddad L. Seeing the unseen: breaking the logjam of undernutrition in Pakistan. IDS Bull. 2013;44(3):1–9. doi:10.1111/1759-5436.12025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das JK, Achakzai ABK, Bhutta ZA. Stop stunting: Pakistan perspective on how this could be realized. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12(Suppl 1):253–6. doi:10.1111/mcn.12285.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harding KL, Aguayo VM, Webb P. Hidden hunger in South Asia: a review of recent trends and persistent challenges. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(4):785–95. doi:10.1017/S1368980017003202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goudet SM, Bogin BA, Madise NJ, Griffiths PL. Nutritional interventions for preventing stunting in children (birth to 59 months) living in urban slums in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;6:Cd011695.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cesare MD, Bhatti Z, Soofi SB, Fortunato L, Ezzati M, Bhutta ZA. Geographical and socioeconomic inequalities in women and children’s nutritional status in Pakistan in 2011: an analysis of data from a nationally representative survey. Lancet Glob Health. 2015;3(4):e229–e239. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(15)70001-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angdembe MR, Dulal BP, Bhattarai K, Karn S. Trends and predictors of inequality in childhood stunting in Nepal from 1996 to 2016. Int J Equity Health. 2019;18(1):42. doi:10.1186/s12939-019-0944-z.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Na M, Aguayo VM, Arimond M, Stewart CP. Risk factors of poor complementary feeding practices in Pakistani children aged 6–23 months: a multilevel analysis of the demographic and health survey 2012–2013. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(S2):e12463. doi:10.1111/mcn.12463.
   Google Scholar
• Neufeld LM, Osendarp SJ, Gonzalez W. Fortification of complementary foods: a review of products and program delivery. Nestle Nutr Inst Workshop Ser. 2017;87:115–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adu-Afarwuah S, Young RR, Lartey A, Okronipa H, Ashorn P, Ashorn U, Oaks BM, Dewey KG. Supplementation with small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements does not increase child morbidity in a semiurban setting in Ghana: a secondary outcome noninferiority analysis of the international lipid-based nutrient supplements (ILINS)–dyad randomized controlled trial. J Nutr. 2020;150(2):382–93. doi:10.1093/jn/nxz243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White JM, Bégin F, Kumapley R, Murray C, Krasevec J. Complementary feeding practices: current global and regional estimates. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13(S2):e12505. doi:10.1111/mcn.12505.
   Google Scholar
• Ahoya B, Kavle JA, Straubinger S, Gathi CM. Accelerating progress for complementary feeding in Kenya: key government actions and the way forward. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(S1):e12723. doi:10.1111/mcn.12723.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abeshu MA, Lelisa A, Geleta B. Complementary feeding: review of recommendations, feeding practices, and adequacy of homemade complementary food preparations in developing countries—lessons from Ethiopia. Front Nutr. 2016;3:41. doi:10.3389/fnut.2016.00041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prado EL, Dewey KG. Nutrition and brain development in early life. Nutr Rev. 2014;72(4):267–84. doi:10.1111/nure.12102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutta ZA, Das JK, Rizvi A, Gaffey MF, Walker N, Horton S, Webb P, Lartey A, Black RE. Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost? Lancet. 2013;382(9890):452–77. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60996-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visser J, McLachlan MH, Maayan N, Garner P. Community-based supplementary feeding for food insecure, vulnerable and malnourished populations—an overview of systematic reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;11:Cd010578.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niazi A, Niazi S, Baber A. Nutritional programmes in Pakistan: a review. J Med Nutr Nutraceut. 2012;1(2):98–100. doi:10.4103/2278-019X.101297.
   Google Scholar
• Ali M. Multisectoral approach to nutrition in Pakistan. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. 2019;9(1):152–63. doi:10.2166/washdev.2018.122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahmood H, Suleman Y, Hazir T, Akram DS, Uddin S, Dibley MJ, Abassi S, Shakeel A, Kazmi N, Thow AM. Overview of the infant and young child feeding policy environment in Pakistan: Federal, Sindh and Punjab context. BMC Public Health. 2017;17(S2):474. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4341-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zarnowiecki DM, Dollman J, Parletta N. Associations between predictors of children’s dietary intake and socioeconomic position: a systematic review of the literature. Obes Rev. 2014;15(5):375–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tassew AA, Tekle DY, Belachew AB, Adhena BM. Factors affecting feeding 6–23 months age children according to minimum acceptable diet in Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis of the Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0203098. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenn B, Sangrasi GM, Puett C, Trenouth L, Pietzsch S. The REFANI Pakistan study—a cluster randomised controlled trial of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of cash-based transfer programmes on child nutrition status: study protocol. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):1044. doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2380-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar