A Comparison of Cognitive and Everyday Functional Performance Among Older Adults With and Without Hypertension

REFERENCES

• Alves de Moaes , S. , Szklo , M. , Knopman , D. and Sato , R. 2002 . The relationship between temporal changes in blood pressure and changes in cognitive function: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study . Preventative Medicine , 35 : 258 – 263 . doi: 10.1006/pmed.2002.1007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amenta , F. , Mignini , F. , Rabbia , F. and Tomassoni , D. 2002 . Protective effect of antihypertensive treatment on cognitive function in essential hypertension: Analysis of published clinical data . Journal of the Neurological Sciences , 203-204 : 147 – 151 . doi: 10.1016/S0022-510X(02)00281-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ball , K. , Berch , D. B. , Helmers , K. F. , Jobe , J. B. , Leveck , M. D. , Marsiske , M … and Unverzagt , F. W. 2002 . Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults. A randomized controlled trial . JAMA, 288 , : 2271 – 2281 . doi: 10.1001/jama.288.18.2271
   Google Scholar
• Ball , K. and Owsley , C. 2000 . “ Increasing mobility and reducing accidents of older drivers ” . In Mobility and transportation in the elderly , Edited by: Schaie , K. W. and Pietrucha , M. 213 – 251 . New York : Springer Publishing Company, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Ball , K. , Roenker , D. L. , Wadley , V. G. , Edwards , J. D. , Roth , D. L. , McGwin , D … and Dube , T. 2005 . Can high risk drivers be identified through performance-based measures in a department of motor vehicles setting? . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 54 ( 1 ) : 77 – 84 . doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.00568.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beevers , G. , Lip , G. Y. and O'Brian , E . 2001 . ABC of hypertension: The pathophysiology of hypertension . British Journal of Psychiatry , 114 : 797 – 811 . doi: 10.1136/bmj.322.729.1.912
   Google Scholar
• Bennett , D. A. , Wilson , R. S. , Schneider , J. A. , Evans , D. A. , Mendes de Leon , C. F. , Arnold , S. E … and Bienias , J. L. 2003 . Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons . Neurology , 60 ( 12 ) : 1909 – 1915 . doi: 10.1212/01.WNL.0000069923.64550.9F
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg , C. A. 2008 . “ Everyday problem solving in context ” . In Handbook of cognitive aging: Interdisciplinary perspectives , Edited by: Hofer , S. M. and Alwin , D. F. 207 – 223 . Los Angeles , CA : SAGE Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Brandt , J. 1991 . The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test: Development of a new memory test with six equivalent forms . Clinical Neuropsychology , 5 : 125 – 142 . doi: 10.1080/13854049108403297
   Google Scholar
• Calhoun , D. A. , Jones , D. , Textor , S. , Goff , D. C. , Murphy , T. P. , Toto , R. D … and Carey , R. M. 2008 . Resistant hypertension: Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for high blood pressure research . Hypertension , 51 : 1403 – 1419 . doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.189141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge , H. H. , Kadowaki , T. , Hayakawa , T. , Yamakawa , M. , Sekikawa , A. and Ueshima , H. 2005 . Cognitive impairment as a strong predictor of incident disability in specific ADL-IADL tasks among community-dwelling elders: The Azuchi study . The Gerontologist , 45 ( 2 ) : 222 – 230 . doi: 10.1093/geron/45.2.222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dufouil, C., de Kersaint-Gilly, A., Besancon, V., Levy, C., Auffray, E., Brunnereau, L., … Tzourio, C. (2001). Longitudinal study of blood pressure and white matter hyperintensities: The EVA MRI cohort. Neurology, 56, 921–926. http://www.neurology.org/ (http://www.neurology.org/)
   Google Scholar
• Edwards , J. D. , Ross , L. A. , Wadley , V. G. , Clay , O. J. , Crowe , M. , Roenker , D. L. and Ball , K. K. 2006 . The useful field of view test: Normative data for older adults . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 21 : 275 – 286 . doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2006.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , J. D. , Wadley , V. G. , Vance , D. E. , Wood , K. , Roenker , D. L. and Ball , K. K. 2005 . The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday performance . Aging & Mental Health , 9 : 262 – 271 . doi: 10.1080/13607860412331336788
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fournier , A. , Oprisiu-Fournier , R. , Serot , J. , Godefroy , O. , Achard , J. , Faure , S … and Sato , N. 2009 . Prevention of dementia by antihypertensive drugs: how AT1-receptor-blockers and dihydropyridines better prevent dementia in hypertensive patients than thiazides and ACE-inhibitors . Neurotherapeutics , 9 ( 9 ) : 1413 – 1431 . doi: 10.1586/ern.09.89
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuda, H., & Kitani, M. (1995). Differences between treated and untreated hypertensive subjects in the extent of periventricular hyperintensities observed on brain MRI. Stroke, 26, 1593–1597. http://stroke.ahajournals.org/ (http://stroke.ahajournals.org/)
   Google Scholar
• Gard , P. R. 2008 . Cognitive-enhancing effects of angiotensin IV . Neuroscience , 9 ( Suppl 2 ) : S2 – S15 . doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-9-S2-S15
   Google Scholar
• Gliebus , G. 2007 . The influence of beta-blockers on delayed memory function in people with cognitive impairment . American Journal of Alzheimers Disease and Other Dementias , 22 ( 1 ) : 57 – 61 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gross , A. L. , Rebok , G. W. , Unverzagt , F. W. , Willis , S. L. and Brandt , J. 2011 . Cognitive predictors of everyday functioning in older adults: Results from the ACTIVE cognitive intervention trial . Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 66B ( 5 ) : 557 – 566 . doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbr033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hajjar , I. , Hart , M. , Chen , Y. L. , Mack , W. , Milberg , W. , Chui , H. and Lipsitz , L. 2012 . Effect of antihypertensive therapy on cognitive function in early executive cognitive impairment: A double-blind randomized clinical trial . Archives of Internal Medicine , 172 : 442 – 444 . doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanon , O. , Pequignot , R. , Seux , M. L. , Lenoir , H. , Bune , A. , Rigaud , A. S … and Girerd , X. 2006 . Relationship between antihypertensive drug therapy and cognitive function in elderly hypertensive patients with memory complaints . Journal of Hypertension , 24 : 2101 – 2107 . doi: 10.1097/01.HJH.0000244961.69985.05
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jobe , J. B. , Smith , D. M. , Ball , K. , Tennstedt , S. L. , Marsiske , M. , Willis , S. L … and Kleinman , K. 2001 . ACTIVE: A cognitive intervention trial to promote independence in older adults . Controlled Clinical Trials , 22 : 453 – 479 . doi: 10.1016/S0197-2456(01)00139-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keenan, N. L., & Rosendorf, K. A. (2011). Prevalence of hypertension and controlled hypertension—United States, 2005–2008. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report, 60(1), 94-97. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su6001a21.htm?s_cid=su6001a21_w#tab (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su6001a21.htm?s_cid=su6001a21_w#tab)
   Google Scholar
• Kehoe , P. G. and Wilcock , G. K. 2007 . Is inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system a new treatmet option for Alzheimer's disease? . Lancet Neurology , 6 : 373 – 378 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilander , L. , Nyman , H. , Boberg , M. , Hansson , L. and Lithell , H. 1998 . Hypertension is related to cognitive impairment: A 20-year follow-up of 999 men . Hypertension , 31 : 780 – 786 . doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.31.3.780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klabundy , R. E. 2011 . Cardiovascular physiology concepts , Second , Philadelphia , PA : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins .
   Google Scholar
• Kovar , M. and Lawton , M. , eds. 1994 . Functional disability: Activities and instrumental activities of daily living , Vol. 14 , New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Lindholm , L. H. , Carlberg , B. and Samuelson , O. 2005 . Should β blockers remain first choice in the treatment of primary hypertension? A meta-analysis . The Lancet , 366 ( 1545 ) : 1545 – 1553 . doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67573-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manns , M. , Leske , O. , Gottfried , S. , Bichler , Z. , Lafenêtre , P. , Wahle , P. and Heuman , R. 2011 . Role of neuronal ras activity in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition . Fronteirs in Neuroscience , 5 ( 18 ) : 1 – 8 . doi: 10.3389/fnins.2011.00018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muldoon, M., Waldstein, S. R., Ryan, C. M., Jennings, J. R., Polefrone, J. M., Shapiro, A. P., & Manuck, S. B. (2002). Effects of six anti-hypertensive medications on cognitive performance. Journal of Hypertension, 20, 1643–1652. http://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/pages/default.aspx (http://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/pages/default.aspx)
   Google Scholar
• Ong , H. T. 2009 . Are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers especially useful for cardiovascular protection? . Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine , 22 ( 6 ) : 686 – 697 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne, J. W., & Overbay, A. (2004). The power of outliers (and why reserchers should always check for them). Practical Assessment, Research & Evaulation, 9(6), 1–9. http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=9&n=6 (http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=9&n=6)
   Google Scholar
• Owsley , C. , Sloane , M. , McGwin Jr , G. and Ball , K. 2001 . Timed instrumental activities of daily living tasks: Relationship to cognitive function and everyday performance assessments in older adults . Gerontology , 48 ( 4 ) : 254 – 265 . doi: 10.1159/000058360
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owsley , C. , Sloane , M. E. , McGwin , G. and Ball , K. K. 2002 . Timed instrumental activities of daily living tasks: Relationship to cognitive function and everyday performance assessments in older adults . Gerontology , 2002 : 254 – 265 . doi: 10.1159/000058360
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papademetriou, V. (2005). Hypertension and cognitive function: Blood pressure regulation and cognitive function: A review of the literature. Geriatrics, 60, 20–24. http://www.biotechmedia.com/bestindex.html (http://www.biotechmedia.com/bestindex.html)
   Google Scholar
• Radloff , L. S. 1977 . The CES-D scale: A self report depression scale for research use in the general population . Applied Psychology Measurement , 1 ( 3 ) : 385 – 401 . doi: 10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raz , N. , Rodrigue , K. and Acker , J. 2003 . Hypertension and the brain: Vulnerability of the prefrontal regions and executive functions . Behavioral Neuroscience , 117 : 1169 – 1180 . doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.117.6.1169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan , R. M. and Wolfson , D. 1985 . The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery , Tucson , AZ : Neuropsychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. and Babcock , R. L. 1991 . Decomposing adult age differences in working memory . Developmental Psychology , 27 : 763 – 776 . doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.763
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxby , B. , Harrington , F. , McKeith , A. , Ford , G. and Wesnes , K. 2003 . Effects of hypertension on attention, memory, and executive function in older adults . Health Psychology , 22 : 587 – 591 . doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.22.6.587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxby , B. , Harrington , F. , Wesnes , K. A. , McKeith , I. G. and Ford , G. A. 2008 . Candesartan and cognitive decline in older patients with hypertension: A substudy of the SCOPE trial . Neurology , 70 : 1858 – 1866 . doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000311447.85948.78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seux, M. L., Thijs, L., Forette, F., Staessen, J. A., Birkenhager, W. H., & Bulpitt, C. J. (1998). Correlates of cognitive status of old patients with isolated systolic hypertension: The Syst-Eur Vascular Dementia Project. Journal of Hypertension, 16, 963–969. http://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/pages/default.aspx (http://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/pages/default.aspx)
   Google Scholar
• Sink , K. M. , Leng , X. , Williamson , J. , Kritchevsky , S. B. , Yaffe , K. , Kuller , L … and Goff , D. C. Jr . 2009 . Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and cognitive decline in older adults with hypertension . Archives of Internal Medicine , 169 ( 13 ) : 1195 – 1202 . doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skoog , I. , Lithell , H. , Hansson , L. , Elmfeldt , D. , Hofman , A. , Olofsson , B … and Zanchetti , A. 2005 . Effect of basline cognitive function and antihypertensive treatment on cognitive and cardiovasuclar outcomes: Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE) . American Journal of Hypertension , 18 : 1052 – 1059 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffens , D. C. , Krishnan , K. R. R. , Crump , C. and Burke , G. L. 2002 . Cerebrovascular disease and evolution of depressive symptoms in the Cardiovascular Health Study . Stroke , 33 : 1636 – 1644 . doi: 10.1161/01.STR.0000018405.59799.D5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka , H. and Cartez-Cooper , M. 2008 . “ Exercise, hypertension, and cognition ” . In Exercise and its mediating effects on cognition , Edited by: Spirduso , W. W. , Poon , L. W. and Chodzko-Zajko , W. 169 – 181 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Tun, P. A., Wingfield, A., & Lindfield, K. C. (1997). Motor-speed baseline for the Digit-Symbol Substitution Test. Clinical Gerontologist, 18, 47–51. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t792303983~db=all (http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t792303983~db=all)
   Google Scholar
• Tzourio, C., Dufouil, C., Ducimetriere, O., & Alperovitch, A. (1999). Cognitive decline in individuals with high blood pressure: A longitudinal study in the elderly. EVA Study Group. Epidemiology of vascular aging. Neurology, 53, 1948–1952. http://www.neurology.org/ (http://www.neurology.org/)
   Google Scholar
• Verbrugge , L. M. and Jette , A. M. 1994 . The disablement process . Social Science & Medicine , 38 : 1 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. 2011 . Aging and executive control: Reports of a demise greatly exaggerated . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 20 : 174 – 180 . doi: 10.1177/0963721411408772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , L. , van Belle , G. , Kukull , W. and Larson , E. 2002 . Predictors of functional change: A longitudinal study of nondemented people aged 65 and older . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society , 50 : 1525 – 1534 . doi: 10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50408.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1981 . Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised manual , New York : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1999 . Wechsler Memory Scale–Revised manual , San Antonio : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Wood , K. M. , Edwards , J. D. , Clay , O. J. , Wadley , V. G. , Roenker , D. L. and Ball , K. K. 2005 . Sensory and cognitive factors influencing functional ability in older adults . Gerontology , 51 : 131 – 141 . doi: 10.1159/000082199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zieman , S. J. , Schulman , S. P. and Fleg , J. 2003 . “ Ischemic heart disease ” . In Aging, heart disease, and its management: Facts and controversies , Edited by: Edwards , N. M. , Maurer , M. S. and Wellner , R. B. 249 – 273 . Totowa , NJ : Humana Press .
   Google Scholar