Webcam-Based Eye-Tracking of Attentional Biases in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Proof-Of-Concept Study

References

• Almeida, O. P., Draper, B., Pirkis, J., Snowdon, J., Lautenschlager, N. T., Byrne, G., Sim, M., Stocks, N., Kerse, N., Flicker, L., & Pfaff, J. J. (2012). Anxiety, depression, and comorbid anxiety and depression: Risk factors and outcome over two years. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(10), 1622–1632. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104161021200107X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, T. J., & MacAskill, M. R. (2013). Eye movements in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. Nature Reviews Neurology, 9(2), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2012.273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anwyl-Irvine, A., Massonnié, J., Flitton, A., Kirkham, N., & Evershed, J. (2020). Gorilla in our Midst: An online behavioral experiment builder. Behavior Research Methods, 52(1), 388–407. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01237-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arditte, K. A., & Joormann, J. (2014). Rumination moderates the effects of cognitive bias modification of attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(2), 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9581-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(8), 704–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsamo, M., Cataldi, F., Carlucci, L., & Fairfield, B. (2018). Assessment of anxiety in older adults: A review of self-report measures. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 13, 573–593. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S114100_
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsamo, M., Cataldi, F., Carlucci, L., Padulo, C., & Fairfield, B. (2018). Assessment of late-life depression via self-report measures: A review. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 13, 2021–2044. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S114100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbarino, P. (2017). Global dementia policy overview. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 13(7), 1451–P1451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2017.07.760
   Google Scholar
• Barry, T. J., Vervliet, B., & Hermans, D. (2015). An integrative review of attention biases and their contribution to treatment for anxiety disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 968–968. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00968
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baruch, N., Behrman, S., Wilkinson, P., Bajorek, T., Murphy, S. E., & Browning, M. (2021). Negative bias in interpretation and facial expression recognition in late life depression: A case control study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 36(9), 1450–1459. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beevers, C. G., Lee, H. J., Wells, T. T., Ellis, A. J., & Telch, M. J. (2011). Eye gaze bias for emotion stimuli prospectively predicts PTSD and depression symptoms among soldiers deployed in Iraq. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(July), 735–741. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10091309
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blanco, I., Poyato, N., Nieto, I., Boemo, T., Pascual, T., Roca, P., & Vazquez, C. (2019). Attentional biases in dysphoria when happy and sad faces are simultaneously presented. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 65, 101499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.101499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bott, N. T., Madero, E. N., Glenn, J. M., Lange, A. R., Anderson, J. J., Newton, D. O., Brennan, A. H., Buffalo, E. A., Rentz, D. M., & Zola, S. M. (2020). Device-embedded cameras for eye tracking-based cognitive assessment: Implications for teleneuropsychology. Telemedicine Journal and E-Health, 26(4), 477–481. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2019.0039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botto, R., Callai, N., Cermelli, A., Causarano, L., & Rainero, I. (2022). Anxiety and depression in Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review of pathogenetic mechanisms and relation to cognitive decline. Neurological Sciences, 43(7), 4107–4124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-022-06068-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgin, J., Guyader, N., Chauvin, A., Juphard, A., Sauvée, M., Moreaud, O., Silvert, L., Hot, P., & Kumfor, F. (2018). Early emotional attention is impacted in alzheimer’s Disease: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 63(4), 1445–1458. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braam, A. W., Copeland, J. R. M., Delespaul, P. A. E. G., Beekman, A. T. F., Como, A., Dewey, M., Fichter, M., Holwerda, T. J., Lawlor, B. A., Lobo, A., Magnússon, H., Prince, M. J., Reischies, F., Wilson, K. C., & Skoog, I. (2014). Depression, subthreshold depression and comorbid anxiety symptoms in older Europeans: Results from the EURODEP concerted action. Journal of Affective Disorders, 155(1), 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandt, J., Spencer, M., & Folstein, M. (1988). The telephone interview for cognitive status. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 1(2), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/t28542-000
   Google Scholar
• Breitve, M. H., Hynninen, M. J., Brønnick, K., Chwiszczuk, L. J., Auestad, B. H., Aarsland, D., & Rongve, A. (2016). A longitudinal study of anxiety and cognitive decline in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-016-0171-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cabrera, I., Brugos, D., & Montorio, I. (2020). Attentional biases in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 71, 102207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callahan, B. L., Simard, M., Mouiha, A., Rousseau, F., Laforce, R., Hudon, C., & Conde Sala, J. L. (2016). Impact of depressive symptoms on memory for emotional words in mild cognitive impairment and late-life depression. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 52(2), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-150585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstensen, L. L., & Mikels, J. A. (2005). At the intersection of emotion and cognitiom: Aging and the positivity effect. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00348.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chappelle, S. D., Gigliotti, C., Leger, G. C., Peavy, G. M., Jacobs, D. M., Banks, S. J., Little, E. A., Galasko, D. R., & Salmon, D. P. (2022). Comparison of the telephone‐montreal cognitive assessment (T‐MoCA) and telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS) as remote screening tests for early alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 18(S7), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.065917
   Google Scholar
• Demeyer, I., Sanchez, A., & De Raedt, R. (2017). Older adults’ attentional deployment: Differential gaze patterns for different negative mood states. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 55, 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Raedt, R., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Understanding vulnerability for depression from a cognitive neuroscience perspective: A reappraisal of attentional factors and a new conceptual framework. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10(1), 50–70. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.10.1.50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duque, A., & Vázquez, C. (2015). Double attention bias for positive and negative emotional faces in clinical depression: Evidence from an eye-tracking study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 46, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.09.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebner, N. C., Riediger, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2010). FACES-a database of facial expressions in young, middle-aged, and older women and men: Development and validation. Behavior Research Methods, 42(1), 351–362. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.1.351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher, D., Coen, R., Kilroy, D., Belinski, K., Bruce, I., Coakley, D., Walsh, B., Cunningham, C., & Lawlor, B. A. (2011). Anxiety and behavioural disturbance as markers of prodromal Alzheimer’s disease in patients with mild cognitive impairment. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(2), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonfrier, S., Andrieu, S., Renaud, D., Vellas, B., & Robert, P. (2012). Course of neuropsychiatric symptoms during a 4-year follow up in the REAL-FR cohort. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 16(2), 134–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-011-0147-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratton, G., Cooper, P., Fabiani, M., Carter, C. S., & Karayanidis, F. (2018). Dynamics of cognitive control: Theoretical bases, paradigms, and a view for the future. Psychophysiology, 55(3), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenaway, A. M., Nasuto, S., Ho, A., & Hwang, F. (2021). Is home-based webcam eye-tracking with older adults living with and without Alzheimer’s disease feasible? The 23rd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS ’21), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1145/3441852.3476565
   Google Scholar
• Hankin, B. L., Gibb, B. E., Abela, J. R. Z., & Flory, K. (2010). Selective attention to affective stimuli and clinical depression among youths: Role of anxiety and specificity of emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119(3), 491–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmer, C. J., Goodwin, G. M., & Cowen, P. J. (2009). Why do antidepressants take so long to work? A cognitive neuropsychological model of antidepressant drug action. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195(2), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. (2017) . IBM SPSS statistics software for windows (No. 25).
   Google Scholar
• Kishimoto, T., Wen, X., Li, M., Zhang, R. Y., Yao, N., Huang, Y., & Qian, M. (2021). Vigilance-avoidance toward negative faces in social anxiety with and without comorbid depression. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 636961. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.636961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolanowski, A., Gilmore-Bykovskyi, A., Hill, N., Massimo, L., & Mogle, J. (2019). Measurement challenges in research with individuals with cognitive impairment. Research in Gerontological Nursing, 12(1), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.3928/19404921-20181212-06
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., & Spitzer, R. L. (2002). The PHQ-9: A new depression diagnostic and everity measure. Psychiatric Annals, 32(9), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.3928/0048-5713-20020901-06
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruijt, A. W., Parsons, S., & Fox, E. (2019). A meta-analysis of bias at baseline in RCTs of attention bias modification: No evidence for dot-probe bias towards threat in clinical anxiety and PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(6), 563–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarov, A., Abend, R., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Social anxiety is related to increased dwell time on socially threatening faces. Journal of Affective Disorders, 193, 282–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarov, A., Ben-Zion, Z., Shamai, D., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2018). Free viewing of sad and happy faces in depression: A potential target for attention bias modification. Journal of Affective Disorders, 238, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.047
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeMoult, J., & Joormann, J. (2012). Attention and memory biases in social anxiety disorder: The role of comorbid depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-010-9322-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Löwe, B., Decker, O., Müller, S., Brähler, E., Schellberg, D., Herzog, W., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008). Validation and standardization of the generalized anxiety disorder screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Medical Care, 46(3), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e318160d093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Low, A. C. Y., Oh, V. Y. S., Tong, E. M. W., Scarf, D., & Ruffman, T. (2022). Older adults have difficulty decoding emotions from the eyes, whereas easterners have difficulty decoding emotion from the mouth. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 7408–7408. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11381-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod, C., & Clarke, P. J. F. (2015). The attentional bias modification approach to anxiety intervention. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614560749
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L. (2002). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(1), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.1.107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maria, G.-G., & Juan, G.-G. (2017). Negative bias in the perception and memory of emotional information in Alzheimer disease. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 30(3), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891988716686833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molitor, R. J., Ko, P. C., & Ally, B. A. (2015). Eye movements in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 44(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-141173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molloy, A., & Anderson, P. L. (2020). Evaluating the reliability of attention bias and attention bias variability measures in the dot-probe task among people with social anxiety disorder. Psychological Assessment, 32(9), 883–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mooldijk, S. S., Licher, S., & Wolters, F. J. (2021). Characterizing demographic, racial, and geographic diversity in dementia research: A systematic review. Jama Neurology, 78(10), 1255–1261. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.2943
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, R. B., Kuckertz, J. M., Siegle, G. J., Ladouceur, C. D., Silk, J. S., Ryan, N. D., Dahl, R. E., & Amir, N. (2015). Empirical recommendations for improving the stability of the dot-probe task in clinical research. Psychological Assessment, 27(2), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodebaugh, T. L., Scullin, R. B., Langer, J. K., Dixon, D. J., Huppert, J. D., Bernstein, A., Zvielli, A., & Lenze, E. J. (2016). Unreliability as a threat to understanding psychopathology: The cautionary tale of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(6), 840–851. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryu, S.-H., Katona, C., Rive, B., & Livingston, G. (2005). Persistence of and changes in neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer disease over 6 months: The LASER-AD study. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13(11), 976–983. https://doi.org/10.1097/00019442-200511000-00008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, A., & Vazquez, C. (2014). Looking at the eyes of happiness: Positive emotions mediate the influence of life satisfaction on attention to happy faces. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(5), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.910827
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sears, C., Quigley, L., Fernandez, A., Newman, K., & Dobson, K. (2019). The reliability of attentional biases for emotional images measured using a free-viewing eye-tracking paradigm. Behavior Research Methods, 51(6), 2748–2760. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1147-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semmelmann, K., & Weigelt, S. (2018). Online webcam-based eye tracking in cognitive science: A first look. Behavior Research Methods, 50(2), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0913-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo, E. H., Lee, D. Y., Kim, S. G., Kim, K. W., Kim, D. H., Kim, B. J., Kim, M. D., Kim, S. Y., Kim, Y. H., Kim, J. L., Kim, J. W., Moon, S. W., Park, J. H., Ryu, S. H., Yoon, J. C., Lee, N. J., Lee, C. U., Jhoo, J. H., Choo, L. H., & Woo, J. I. (2011). Validity of the telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS) and modified TICS (TICSm) for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia screening. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 52(1), e26–e30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2010.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, I. W., Hübscher, M., Moseley, G. L., Lee, H., Wand, B. M., Traeger, A. C., Gustin, S. M., & McAuley, J. H. (2018). The reliability of eye tracking to assess attentional bias to threatening words in healthy individuals. Behavior Research Methods, 50(5), 1778–1792. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0946-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spalletta, G., Caltagirone, C., Girardi, P., Gianni, W., Casini, A. R., & Palmer, K. (2012). The role of persistent and incident major depression on rate of cognitive deterioration in newly diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease patients. Psychiatry Research, 198(2), 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.11.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014). Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(3), 313–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, E. M., Kohler, C. G., Vonbank, J., Stadelmann, E., Kemmler, G., Hinterhuber, H., & Marksteiner, J. (2008). Impairment in emotion recognition abilities in patients with mild cognitive impairment, early and moderate Alzheimer disease compared with healthy comparison subjects. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(12), 974–980. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e318186bd53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woody, M. L., Owens, M., Burkhouse, K. L., & Gibb, B. E. (2016). Selective attention toward angry faces and risk for major depressive disorder in women: Converging evidence from retrospective and prospective analyses. Clinical Psychological Science, 4(2), 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702615581580
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang, L., Yu, F., Hu, Q., Qiao, Y., Xuan, R., Ji, G., Zhu, C., Cai, C., & Wang, K. (2020). Effects of SSRI antidepressants on attentional bias toward emotional scenes in first-episode depressive patients: Evidence from an eye-tracking study. Psychiatry Investigation, 17(9), 871–879. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2019.0345
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zvielli, A., Bernstein, A., Koster, E. H. W., & Voracek, M. (2014). Dynamics of attentional bias to threat in anxious adults: Bias towards and/or away? PLoS ONE, 9(8), e104025–e104025. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar